| Question | Answer |
| How many AIDS orphans are there in Africa? | 2 Million |
| How many deaths are caused by tuberculosis each year? | 5 Million |
| How many deaths are caused by Malaria each year? | 3 Million |
| How many deaths are caused by Sleeping Sickness each year? | 400,000 |
| What is immunity? | The immune system functions to maintain the integrity of the body |
| Small Lymphocyte | Production of antibodies (B Cells) or Cytotoxic and helper functions (T Cells) |
| Dendritic Cells | Activation of T cells initiation of adaptive immune responses |
| Plasma Cells | Fully differentiated form of B cells that secretes antibodies |
| Mast Cell | Expulsion of parasites from body through release of granules containing histamine and other active ingredients |
| Natural Killer Cell | Kills cells infected with certain viruses |
| Monocyte | Circulating precursor cell to a macrophage |
| Neutrophil | Phagocytosis and killing of microorganisms |
| Macrophage | Phagocytosis and killing or microorganisms. Activation or T cells and innitiation or immune responses |
| Eosinophil | Killing of antibody-coated parasites through release of granule contents |
| Megakaryocyte | Platelet formation, wound repair |
| Basophil | Controlling immune responses to parasites |
| Erythrocyte | Oxygen transport |
| Threats from the outside | Bacteria
Parasites
Viruses
Aliens
Other human cells |
| Threats from within | Tumours
Autoimmunity |
| Hematopoisis | Formation of blood cells |
| Stem cells | (In bone marrow) Rare pluripotent cells capable of self-renewal |
| Pluripotent | A pluripotent cell can create all cell types |
| Monocytes | Short lived in the blood, differentiate to marcrophages & dendritic cells. Become tissue-fixed. |
| Types of Monocytes | Osteoclasts (bones)
Glial Cells (brain)
Kuppfer Cells (liver)
Alverlar macrophages (lung) |
| Antigen Presenting Cells (ACP) | Ingest microbes, destroy, digest.
Process antigen, present antigen |
| APC's present the antigen in the secondary lymphoid organs such as... | Lymph nodes
Spleen
Adenoids/Tonsils
Appendix
Peyers Patches |
| Type A can receive | Type A and Type O |
| Type B can receive | Type B and Type O |
| Type O can receive | Type O only (universal donor) |
| Type AB can receive | Type A, B and O (universal recipient) |
| Our circulation works at? | high pressure |
| Fluid leaks from the capillaries into? | Spaces surrounding tissues |
| Primary Lymphoid Organs | Bone marrow and Thymus |
| Where do all lymphoid cells originate? | Bone Marrow |
| Where to T lymphocytes mature? | Thymus |
| Act as filters and catch anything that shouldn't be there | Secondary Lymphoid Organs |
| Secondary Lymphoid Organs | Lymph Nodes
Spleen
Peyer's Patches
Appendix
Tonsils |
| Humoral Immunity | Antibodies |
| Extracellular Organisms | Bacteria & Viruses/Parasites |
| Cell Mediated Immune Response (Natural killer cells, T killer cells, macrophages) | 1. Tumor & 2. Virus infected cells/parasite-infected cells |
| Antigen named after it's discovery in the Rhesus monkey, Also found in humans | Rh Factor |
| Rh Factor - First Pregnancy (Rh- female, Rh+ male) | No problem |
| Rh factor - Second Pregnancy (Rh- female, Rh+ male) | Big problem |
| Rh Factor (What happens with the antibodies?) | Antibodies made by mother against erythrocytes of the child, recognize the Rh antigen and lyse the erythrocytes of the next developing fetus |
| Blood typing of the parents and administration of the anti-Rh antibodies to remove antigen (red cells) from mother | |
| Proteins secreted by stimulated B lymphocytes (plasma cells). Different kinds have different functions | Antibodies (ABS) |
| Different kids of antibodies | IgM, IgD, IgG, IgA, IgE |
| People with blood type A have __ antigens on the erythrocyte surfaces | A |
| People with blood type B have __ antigens on the erythrocyte surfaces | B |
| People with blood type AB have __ antigens on the erythrocyte surfaces | Both |
| People with blood type O have __ antigens on the erythrocyte surfaces | Neither |
| Type A: Tolerant of "A" antigens but have antibodies to "B", Therefore a person of Type A... | Cannot accept blood from type B or AB donor |
| We make immune response to arising cancer cells - these are eliminated from the body | Immunosurveillance |
| Immunosurveillance First line of defense | Macrophages and Natural Killer (NK) cells |
| Immunosurveillance Second line of defense | T Cytotoxic lymphocytes (T killer cells) |
| Develop when transformed cells "sneak through" the immune system | Tumors |
| Cells of colon cancers and in embryos (CEA) | Carcinoembryonic Antigen |
| Liver Cancers (AFP) | Alpha-fetoprotein |
| Ca 27-29 | Breast Cancers |
| Ca 125 | Ovarian Cancer |
| Can be caused by a normal response to a pathogen that has antigens with the same structure as self molecules | Autoimmunity |
| Cause rheumatic fever and sometimes damages heart muscle due to anti-strep antibodies | Streptococcal |
| Breakdown or tolerance to self molecules | True Autoimmunity |
| Autoimmunity results as a consequence of a normal immune response to an infection and the antibodies or cells accidentally react with self molecules | A Misnomer |
| 10x higher frequency in females than males
Antibodies are made to platelets, other cells, histones, DNA
Estrogen - Hormonally linked expressions to the disease | Systemic Lupus Erythmatosis (SLE) |
| T killer cells attack myelin protein (myelin sheath, insulation to nerves) | Multiple Sclerosis |
| - Frequent in females 40-60 years old
- Body makes rheumatoid factor, IgM anti-IgG
- Complexes deposit in joints causing inflammation. Like having bits of glass in your joints. | Rheumatoid Arthritis |
| Surgical procedures developed by 1900.
Viennese surgeon observed that he could surgically remove a kidney and put it back into the same animal in a procedure called _________? | Transplantation |
| Transplant from one area of a patient to another | Autograft |
| Transplant between genetically identical people | Isograft |
| Transplant between members of the same species | Allograft |
| Transplant between different species | Xenograft |
| Working with burn patients in WW2 noticed that autografts were accepted but allografts were not and that a 2nd allograft from the same donor was rejected faster | Peter Medawar |
| Humans are composed of dozens of different types of tissues, each composed of discrete units called? | Cells |
| About ___ different functional types of cells in humans | 200 |
| Two types of Cells | Prokaryote & Eukaryote |
| - Complex intracellular structure
- Contains organelles (nucleus, mitochondria) | Eukaryote |
| Relatively simple cell
No nucleus
Eg. Bacteria | Prokaryote |
| Simple Unicellular organisms may be _______ | Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic |
| Complex multicellular organisms may be _____ | Only Eukaryotes |
| Estimated total number of cells in human
body? | |
| Organized, highly condensed (supercoiled) unit of DNA.
Usually single copy in bacteria (haploid) | Prokaryotic Nucleoid |
| The genome is organized as _______ | Chromosomes |
| Human cells contain __ pairs of chromosomes (diploid) | 23 |
| These people solved the structure of DNA | James Watson & Francis Crick |
| These people prove that genes are composed of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) | Oswald Avery, Maclyn McCarty and Colin MacLeod |
| Each strand or DNA is made of a string of ______ | Nucleotides |
| Each _______ is composed of a sugar-phosphate backbone and a Base | Nucleotide |
| 4 Different Types of Bases In DNA | Guanine, Cytosine, Adenine, Thymine |
| 2 DNA strands are held together by weak _______ _____ | Hydrogen Bonds |
| First Objective of the Human Genome Project | Determine the sequence of the 4 bases in human DNA |
| 3 Stages of Human Clinical Trials | Stage 1: Is drug safe for humans?
Stage 2: Does drug work for it's intended purpose?
Stage 3: How does new drug compare with other available treatments? |
| Experiment where subjects are not informed of type of treatment they receive | Blind Experiment |
| Experiment where neither subject or experimenter is informed of treatment type | Double Blind |
| Diverse group of food supplements claimed to have medical benifits | Neutraceuticals |
| Based on genomic regions containing Variable Number of Tandem Repeats (VNTR) | DNA Fingerprinting |
| Recognition sites for restriction enzymes | Cleavage Sites |
| Performed on a rectangular slab of gel composed of aragose, a carbohydrate extracted from kelp | Aragose Gel Electrophoresis |
| During Aragose Gel Electrophoresis, DNA molecules always move towards the _______ | Anode + |
| All _________ carry complete genome | Somatic Cells |
| One of the 2 DNA strands used as template for synthesis of complimentary strand of mRNA | Transcription |
| Information on mRNA is decoded into amino acid sequence of a protein on ribosomes | Translation |
| Chain of nucleotides sythesized by ___ _______ from template strand of DNA | RNA Polymerase |
| Single stranded
Ribose instead of deoxyribose
Thymine replaced by uracil | mRNA |
| Each sequence of 3 bases in RNA | Codon |
| A set of 64 three-letter combinations called “codons” used to decode genes into proteins | The Genetic Code |
| Two common applications of gene chips | 1. DNA-based diagnostic tests
2. Study of gene expression patterns in cells |
| Unique enzyme used to synthesize cDNA from mRNA template | Reverse Transcriptase |
| cDNA labeled by using nucleotides tagged with __________? | Fluorescent Dye |
| Gene Chip: Colourless means? | Unexpressed genes |
| Gene Chip: Coloured spots mean? | Expressed genes |
| Microarray analysis: What colour are the genes expressed only in normal cells? | Green |
| Microarray analysis: What colour are the genes expressed only in cancer cells? | Red |
| Microarray analysis: What colour are the genes unexpressed in normal and cancer cells? | No colour |
| Replacing a bad gene with a good one from a normal person to cure problem | Gene Therapy |
| Simplest viruses composed of __________ surrounding genome | Protein coats |
| Professional cell break-in artists
Cell dependent
Professional Gene couriers (Leave genes at every crime scene) | Viruses |
| Genes usually incorporated into host
chromosome at | Very low efficiency |
| Used as gene delivery tools | Retroviruses |
| Inside living body; Cells genetically modified directly in patient | In Vivo |
| Outside living body; Appropriate cells taken from patient, genetically modified, and then returned to patient | Ex Vivo |
| First human disease to be successfully treated by gene therapy
Single gene defect | Severe Combined ImmunoDeficiency (SCID) |
| Cells involved in immunity are derived from? | Bone Marrow Stem Cells |
| Detects mutations that cause a disease or may predispose an individual to a disease | DNA Test |
| Bonds between DNA strands are broken and separated by heating | Denaturation |
| 2 DNA strands are cooled and allowed to bond with cooling | Hybridization or Annealing |
| Most common fatal genetic disease in north american Caucasians
Caused by mutations in single gene | Cystic Fibrosis |
| CF mutations are _______ meaning both parents must carry one mutant gene to pass disease to children | Recessive |
| Late onset, involves progressive destruction of tissue in nervous system resulting in loss of motor and cognitive function | Huntington's Disease |
| HD mutation is ________ meaning only one parent needs to have one copy of the gene | Dominant |
| HD gene encodes protein known as? | Huntingtin |
| Mutant huntingtin undergoes _______ but normal huntingtin does noe | cleavage |
| Areas containing a single base variation in DNA sequence | SNP |
| Stages of embryonic development | 1. Sperm fertilizes egg
2. 2-Cell stage
3. 4 cell stage
4. Blastocyst stage |
| Genetically altered | Transgenic |
| Method for creating genetically altered mice | 1. Modified cloned gene injected into nucleus of fertilized egg
2. Gene spliced into chromosome of embryo at low frequency
3. Resulting "transgenic embryo" implanted into surrogate mother. |
| Two common ways to identify function of disease gene in animals | 1. Mutate cloned gene to mimic sequence of human diseased gene
2. Completely destroy gene in genome (gene knockout) |
| What are Fibroblasts? | Elongated cells |
| ____________ are the only cells that can't be grown in a lab | Nervous system cells |
| People with __________ lack insulin-producing beta cells of pancreas | Type 1 diabetes |
| _______ regulates blood sugar metabolism | Insulin |
| Type 1 diabetes is an _____________ where immune system destroys pancreatic beta cells | Autoimmune |
| Discovered insulin | Frederick Banting and Charles Best |
| Produced purified insulin from cows pancreas | Bertram Collip |
| Problems with porcine and bovine insulin? | - Low yields
- Hard to purify, contaminants caused allergic reactions |
| First genetically engineered medication to be licensed for human use | Recombinant Human Insulin |
| A change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA. The 0.1% difference in individuals | Polymorphism |
| A region that can have more than one form or sequence | Polymorphic Region |
| Occur 1 in every 100-300 bases, mostly in junk with no known effect | SNP's |
| Branch of the human genome project.
Objective: Assemble a catalog of all human SNP's | International HapMap Project |
| Differentiate into different cell types (brain, skin nerve)
Diploid | Somatic Cells |
| Carry 2 copies of each chromosome | Diploid Cells |
| Sperm of Ova
Haploid Cells | Germ (Reproductive) Cells |
| Carry single copies of each chromosome | Haploid Cells |
| Involves dissecting individual intact genes from genome | Cloning Genes |
| Protein that carries out a chemical reaction | Enzyme |
| A large molecule made up of smaller building blocks (monomers) | Polymer |
| Cut DNA at specific sequences of bases, found in bacteria | Restriction Nucleases |
| Gene is inserted into a ________ to create recombinant DNA | Vector |
| Example of a vector | Plasmid |
| A system for naming organisms. First name: Genus, Second: Species. | Binomial Nomenclature |
| Genes from different organisms that share similar function | Homologs |
| Finding homologs by computer-assisted identification of similar sequences on genomes of different organisms | Comparative Genomics |
| Possess human homologs | Model organisms |
| 99% of mouse and human genes are | homologs |
| A _______ is an excellent model organism to study humans | Mouse |
| About 60% of genes involved in roughly 300 human diseases also occur in? | Fruit flies |
| Easy to grow in lab
Unicellular eukatyote | Bakers Yeast |
| Fast life cycle: 6 Weeks from germination to seed.
Allows one to perform plant genetic experiments quickly | Mustard Weed |
| Cannot be cultured in lab | Syphilis |
| Polymer composed of monomers called amino acids | Protein |
| __ different amino acids occur in proteins | 20 |
| Sequence of amino acids determines _____ of protein | Shape |
| Shape of Protein, determines it's function | Conformation |
| All proteins assume their shapes through process known as? | Folding |
| Each sequence of 3 bases is a? | Gene |
| There are about ______ genes | 25,000 |
| 2 Forms of Junk DNA | 1. Duplications
2. Repetitions |
| The genetic switches that regulate the expression of genes | Junk DNA |
