Term | Definition |
deviance | behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society
-violation of group norms
-subject to social definition within a particular society |
stigma (Erving Goffman) | labels society uses to devalue members of a certain social group
-affects those with mental illness |
deviance and technology | innovations can redefine social interactions
online communication offers a high degree |
social control | techniques and strategies employed for preventing deviant human behavior
parents
peer groups-informal norms or dress codes
colleges-establish standards
bureaucratic org- formal system of rules
government |
sanctions | penalties or rewards for conduct concerning a social norm |
Functionalist on social control | people must respect social norms for a group or society to survive |
conflict theorists on social control | successful functioning of society made possible by adherence to social norms benefits the powerful |
The Milgram experiment
(Stanley Milgram) | experimenter instructed people to administer painful shocks |
conformity | going along with peers who have no special right to direct behavior |
obedience | compliance with higher authorities in a hierarchical structure |
informal social control | used casually to enforce norms
-smiles, laughter, raised eyebrows, ridicule |
formal social control | carried out by authorized agents
-encouraging people to violate social norms |
law | governmental social norm |
control theory | connection to members of society leads people to systematically conform to society's norm |
Functionalist perspective on deviance
Durkheim legacy | punishments established within a culture help define acceptable behavior and contribute to stability |
anomie (functionalist) | loss of direction felt in society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective |
Merton's theory of Deviance
(functionalist) | anomie theory of deviance contains 5 basic forms of adaptation
conformity
retreatism
innovation
ritualism
rebellion |
conformist (non-deviant) | accepts both the goals of society and the use of acceptable means |
retreatist | withdraws from both goals of society and use of acceptable means |
innovator | accepts goals of society but pursues them with means considered improper |
ritualist | abandons the goals, but becomes compulsively committed to the institutional means |
rebel | feels alienated from both the goals of society and the dominant means of achieving them |
cultural transmission
(interactionist) | people learn how to behave, whether properly or improperly |
differential association
(interactionist) | process through which exposure to attitudes favorable to criminal acts leads to violation of rules |
social disorganixation theory
(interactionist) | crime and deviance caused by absence or breakdown of communal relationships and social institutions |
Labeling theory- William Chambliss
(labeling perspective) | attempts to explain why some people are viewed as deviants while others engaged in the same behavior are not |
societal-reaction approach | response to an act, not the behavior determines deviance |
social constructionist perspective | deviance a product of culture we live in |
conflict perspective on deviance
(Richard Quinney) | people with power protect their own interests |
differential justice | difference in way social control is exercised over different groups |
Feminist perspective on deviance | approaches deviance and crime developed with only men in mind
women as victims and perpetrators |
crime | violation of criminal law for which some governmental authority applies formal penalities |
victimless crime | willing exchange among adults of widely desired but illegal goods and services |
professional crime | person who pursues crime as a day to day occupation |
organized crime | work of a group that regulates relations between various criminal enterprises involved in illegal activities |
white collar crime | illegal acts committed in the course of business activities |
cyber crime | illegal activity conducted through use of a computer hardware or software |
corporate crime | any act by corporations that is punishable |
hate crimes | offender is motivated by victim's race, religion, ethnic group, national origin, or sexual orientation |
transnational crime | crime that occurs across multiple national borders |
social inequality | situation in which members of society have different amounts of wealth, prestige, or power |
stratification | structured ranking of entire groups of people that perpetuates unequal economic rewards and power in society |
4 general systems of stratification | slavery-individuals owned by other people (2000 passed act)
castes-hereditary ranks usually religiously dictated (varnas)
estates-or feudalism: peasants worked land leased to them
social classes-social ranking |
ascribed status | social position assigned to a person by society |
achieved status | social position that a person attains in his or her own efforts |
class system
(Daniel Rossides) | social ranking based primarily on economic position |
upper and lower class | upper class- 1-2% /great wealth and power
lower class-20-25%/lack wealth and income |
middle class | upper middle-10-15%/professionals
lower middle-30-35%/less affkuent |
working class | 40-45%/hold regular jobs |
Karl Marx | stressed significance of class for society |
capitalism (karl Marx) | economic system in which means of production held largely in private hands |
Bourgeoisie | capitalist class, owners of means of production |
proletarist | working class |
class consciousness | awareness of common vested interests |
false consciousness | attitude that doesn't accurately reflect their objective |
class (max weber) | group of people who have similar level of wealth and income |
status group (max weber) | people who have the same prestige or lifestyle |
power (max weber) | ability to exercise one's will over others |
conspicuous consumption-Thorstein Veblen
(interactionist) | purchasing goods not to survive but to flaunt superior wealth and social standing |
functionalist perspective on stratification
(kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore) | social inequality necessary so people will be motivated to fill functionally important positions |
conflict perspective on stratification
(Ralf Dahrendorf) | leads to instability and social change
humans tend to conflict over scarce resources |
dominant ideology (conflict) | set of cultural beliefs and practices |
Lenski's Viwepoint | advance tech-more production
resource expands-inequality
allocation of surplus-social inequality |
objective method | assigns individuals to classes on occupation, education, income, and place of residence |
prestige | respect and admiration an occupation holds in society |
esteem | reputation a specific person has earned within an occupation |
socioeconomic status | measure of social class based on income, education, and occup |
Income and wealth | income distributed unevenly
wealth more unevenly distributed than income |
absolute poverty | min. level of subsistence that no family should live below |
relative poverty | floating standard people at bottom of society judged as being disadvantaged |
feminization of poverty | 1959- 26% poor were female householders
2014-54%
increase in families with women as single heads of household |
underclass | long term poor who lack training and skills |
Gans (Herbert Gans) | poverty and the poor satisfy positive functions for many non -poor groups |
Max Weber | saw class as closely related to people's life chances |
life chances | people's opportunities to provide themselves with a better life |
social mobility | movement of individuals or groups from one position in a society's stratification system to another |
open system | position of each individual influenced by the person's achieved status |
closed system | allows little or no possibility of moving up |
horizontal mobility | same range of prestige |
vertical mobility | movement from one position to another in a different rank |
intergenerational mobility | changes in children's position relative to their parents |
intragenerational mobility | social position changes within a person's adult life |
the global divide | inequality is a significant determinant of human behavior
divides in global wealth emerge |
stratification in the world system | legacy of colonialism
poverty
multinational corp
modernization |
colonialism | foreign power maintains political, social, economic, and cultural domination for an extended period of time |
neocolonialism | continued dependence on more industrialized nations for managerial and technical expertise by former colonies |
world system analysis (Immanuel Wallerstein) | interdependent global economy rests on unequal economic and political relationships
core
semiperiphery
periphery |
dependency theory | even though countries make economic advances, still weak |
globalization | worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trades and exchanges |
UN Millennium development goals | asked industrial nations to set aside 0.51% of gross national income for developing nations to target 8 areas
poverty
education
gender equality
child mortality
maternal health
disease
the environment
global partnership |
multinational corp | commercial org headquartered in one county but doing business throughout the world |
functionalist perspective on multinational corps | jobs and industry
max advantage of technology while reducing costs
make nations more interdependent |
conflict perspective of multinational corps | climate for environment: repressive antilabor laws
neg social impact on workers
pool of cheap labor |
modernization | process by which peripheral nations move from traditional to developed societies |
modernization theory (functionalist) | modernization and development will gradually improve lives of people in developing nations |
conflict perspective on modernization | contributes to neocolonialism |
mobility in industrial nations | influenced by structural factors
immigration continues to be significant
growth in mobility does not necessarily bring growth in equality |
gender differences in mobility | sex discrimination
female infanticide
women's vital role in food production deteriorates |
corporate welfare | tax breaks, bailouts, direct payments, and grants
federal bailouts given to distressed financial institutions |
racial group | group set apart from others because of physical differences that have taken on social significance |
ethnic groups | group set apart from others primarily because of its national origin or distinctive cultural patterns |
minority groups | subordinate group whose members have significantly less control or power over their lives |
properties of minority groups | unequal treatment
distinguishing cultural characteristics
involuntary membership
solidarity
in-group marriage |
racial group | refers to minorities |
social construction of race | society labels those differences people consider important, while ignoring other characteristics |
racial formation | sociohistorical process in which racial categories are created |
ethnicity | group set apart from others because of national origin or distinctive cultural patterns |
prejudice | negative attitude toward an entire category of people |
ethnocentrism | tendency to assume one's culture and way of life is superior to others |
racism | belief that one race is supreme and others inferior |
sterotypes | unreliable generalizations about all members of a group |
color blind racism | use of principle of race neutrality to defend racially unequal status quo |
discrimination | denial of opportunities and equal rights to people |
glass ceiling | invisible barrier blocking promotion of qualified individuals in work environment because of gender, race, and ethnicity |
white privilege (observation by Dubois) | rights or immunities granted to people as a benefit or favor simply because they are white |
redlining | pattern of discrimination against people trying to buy homes in minority and racially changing neighborhoods |
institutional discrimination | denial of opp and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from normal op of society |
affirmative action | positive efforts to recruit minority members or women for jobs, promotions, and educational opps |
functionalist perspective on race and ethnicity
Manning Nash | Moral justification for maintaining unequal society
moral justification for maintaining unequal society
discouraging subordinate groups from questioning their status
major social change would bring greater poverty to minority |
Arnold rose 4 dysfunctions associated with racism | society that practices discrimination fail to use resources
aggravates social problems
society must invest time and money
racial prejudice undercuts goodwill |
conflict perspective on race and ethnicity | exploitation theory- racism keeps minorities in low paying jobs and supplies dominant group with cheap labor |
racial profiling (labeling perspective) | any arbitrary action initiated by an authority based on race, ethnicity, or national origin rather than behaviors |
contact hypothesis (interactionist) | interracial contact between people of equal status in cooperative circumstances |
genocide | deliberate, systematic killing of entire people or nation |
expulsion of people | another extreme means of acting out racial or ethnic prejudice |
secession | failure to resolve ethnic or racial conflict results in drawing formal boundaries between groups |
segregation | physical separation of 2 groups of people in terms of residence |
apartheid | republic of south Africa severely restricted the movement of blacks and non-whites |
amalgamation | happens when majority group and minority group combine to form a new group, "melting pot" |
assimilation | process through which a person forsakes his or her cultural tradition to become part of a different culture |
pluralism | based on mutual respect among various groups in a society for one another's cultures |
black power (African americans) | rejected assimilation into white middle-class society |
Asian americans | one of the fastest growing segments of the U.S. population |
issei | first generation of Japanese immigrants |
latinos | largest minority in the U.S.
census bureau data says that latino pop outnumbers African American pop |
anti-semitism | anti jewish prejudice |
symbolic ethnicity | emphasis on concerns such as ethnic food or political issues rather than deeper ties to one's ethnic heritage |
refugee | people granted the right to enter the country while still residing abroad |
asylees | foreigners who have already entered the country and seek protection from persecution |
gender roles | expectations regarding proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females |
homophobia | fear of and prejudice against homosexuality |
gender stratification requires | individual socialization into traditional gender roles within family
promotion and support of traditional gender roles by other social institutions |
gender identity | how people see themselves, as male or female or something else |
sexual identity | self awareness of being romantically or sexually attracted to a defined group of people |
expressiveness (functionalist) | maintenance of harmony and internal emotional affairs of family |
instrumentality (functionalist) | emphasis on tasks, focus on more distant goals, and concern for external relationship between one's family and social institutions |
engels (feminist) | women's subjugation coincided with rise of private property |
matrix of domination | convergence of social forces that contribute to subordinate status of poor, non white women |
interactionist on gender | study gender stratification on a micro level of everyday behavior
reinforcing traditional masculine and feminine actions |
conflict on gender | relationships between males and females are unequal
reflection of subjugation of one group by another
men's work valued and women is devalued |
sexism | ideology that one sex is superior to the other |
institutional discrimination | denial of opps and equal rights as result of normal operations of society |
status of women worldwide | suffer from second class status
women not responding passively |
glass ceiling | invisible barrier that blocks promotion of a qualified individual because of gender, race, or ethnicity |
glass escalator | advantage men experience in occupations dominated by women
major pay gap |
second shift (Arlie Hochschild) | work outside home followed by child care and housework |
feminism | belief in social, economic, and political equality for women |