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physcology12345
physchology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| applied research | research conducted in an effort to find solutions to particular problems |
| behaviorism | the school of psychology that defines psychology as the study of observable behavior and studies relationships between stimuli and responses |
| blind | in experimental terminology, unaware of whether or not one has received a treatment |
| case study | a carefully drawn biography that may be obtained through interviews, questionnaires, and psychological tests |
| cognitive | having to do with mental processes such as sensation and perception, memory, intelligence, language, thought, and problem solving |
| control groups | in experiments, groups whose members do not obtain the treatment, while other conditions are held constant |
| correlation | an association or relationship among variables, as we might find between height and weight or between study habits and school grades |
| correlation coefficient | a number between +1.00 and –1.00 that expresses the strength and direction (positive or negative) of the relationship between two variables |
| debrief | to explain the purposes and methods of a completed procedure to a participant |
| dependent variable | a measure of an assumed effect of an independent variable |
| double-blind study | a study in which neither the subjects nor the observers know who has received the treatment |
| experiment | a scientific method that seeks to confirm cause-and-effect relationships by introducing independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variables |
| experimental groups | in experiments, groups whose members obtain the treatment |
| functionalism | the school of psychology that emphasizes the uses or functions of the mind rather than the elements of experience |
| Gestalt psychology | the school of psychology that emphasizes the tendency to organize perceptions into wholes and to integrate separate stimuli into meaningful patterns |
| hypothesis | in psychology, a specific statement about behavior or mental processes that is tested through research |
| independent variable | a condition in a scientific study that is manipulated so that its effects may be observed |
| informed consent | a subject’s agreement to participate in research after receiving information about the purposes of the study and the nature of the treatments |
| introspection | deliberate looking into one’s own cognitive processes to examine one’s thoughts and feelings |
| naturalistic observation | a scientific method in which organisms are observed in their natural environments |
| placebo | a bogus treatment that has the appearance of being genuine |
| population | a complete group of organisms or events |
| psychoanalysis | the school of psychology that emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives and conflicts as determinants of human behavior |
| psychology | the science that studies behavior and mental processes |
| pure research | research conducted without concern for immediate applications |
| random sample | a sample drawn so that each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected to participate |
| reinforcement | a stimulus that follows a response and increases the frequency of the response |
| sample | part of a population |
| selection factor | a source of bias that may occur in research findings when subjects are allowed to choose for themselves a certain treatment in a scientific study |
| social-cognitive theory | a school of psychology in the behaviorist tradition that includes cognitive factors in the explanation and prediction of behavior; formerly termed social learning theory |
| sociocultural perspective | the view that focuses on the roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in behavior and mental processes gender the culturally defined concepts of masculinity and femininity |
| stratified sample | a sample drawn so that identified subgroups in the population are represented proportionately in the sample |
| structuralism | the school of psychology that argues that the mind consists of three basic elements—sensations, feelings, and images—that combine to form experience |
| survey | a method of scientific investigation in which a large sample of people answer questions about their attitudes or behavior |
| theory | a formulation of relationships underlying observed events |
| volunteer bias | a source of bias or error in research reflecting the prospect that people who offer to participate in research studies differ systematically from people who do not |
| accommodation | according to Piaget, the modification of schemas so that information inconsistent with existing schemas can be integrated or understood |
| adolescence | the period of life bounded by puberty and the assumption of adult responsibilities |
| Alzheimer’s disease | a progressive form of mental deterioration characterized by loss of memory, language, problem solving, and other cognitive functions |
| amniotic sac | a sac within the uterus that contains the embryo or fetus |
| assimilation | according to Piaget, the inclusion of a new event into an existing schema |
| attachment | the enduring affectional tie that binds one person to another |
| authoritarian parents | parents who are rigid in their rules and who demand obedience for the sake of obedience |
| authoritative parents | parents who are strict and warm; authoritative parents demand mature behavior but use reason rather than force in discipline |
| concrete operational stage | Piaget’s third stage, characterized by logical thought concerning tangible objects, conservation, and subjective morality |
| conservation | according to Piaget, recognition that basic properties of substances such as weight and mass remain the same when superficial features change |
| contact comfort | a hypothesized primary drive to seek physical comfort through contact with another |
| conventional level | according to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgments largely reflect social conventions; a “law and order” approach to morality |
| critical period | a period of time when an instinctive response can be elicited by a particular stimulus |
| decentration | simultaneous focusing on more than one dimension of a problem, so that flexible, reversible thought becomes possible |
| dream | in this usage, Levinson’s term for the overriding drive of youth to become someone important, to leave one’s mark on history |
| ego identity | Erikson’s term for a firm sense of who one is and what one stands for |
| ego integrity versus despair | Erikson’s term for the crisis of late adulthood, characterized by the task of maintaining one’s sense of identity despite physical deterioration |
| egocentrism | according to Piaget, the assumption that others view the world as one does oneself |
| ethologist | a scientist who studies the characteristic behavior patterns of species of animals |
| fixation time | the amount of time spent looking at a visual stimulus |
| fluid intelligence | mental flexibility as shown in learning rapidly to solve new kinds of problems |
| formal operational stage | Piaget’s fourth stage, characterized by abstract logical thought and deduction from principles |
| generativity versus stagnation | Erikson’s term for the crisis of middle adulthood, characterized by the task of being productive and contributing to younger generations |
| germinal stage | the first stage of prenatal development, during which the dividing mass of cells has not become implanted in the uterine wall |
| imaginary audience | an aspect of adolescent egocentrism; the belief that other people are as concerned with our thoughts and behaviors as we are |
| imprinting | a process occurring during a critical period in the development of an organism, in which that organism responds to a stimulus in a manner that will afterward be difficult to modify |
| intimacy versus isolation | Erikson’s life crisis of young adulthood, which is characterized by the task of developing abiding intimate relationships |
| menarche | the beginning of menstruation |
| menopause | the cessation of menstruation one’s lifetime of intellectual achievement, as shown largely through vocabulary and knowledge of world affairs |
| midlife crisis | a crisis experienced by many people during the midlife transition when they realize that life may be more than halfway over and they reassess their achievements in terms of their dreams |
| object permanence | recognition that objects removed from sight still exist, as demonstrated in young children by continued pursuit |
| objective responsibility | according to Piaget, the assignment of blame according to the amount of damage done rather than the motives of the actor |
| permissive parents | parents who impose few, if any, rules and who do not supervise their children closely |
| personal fable | another aspect of adolescent egocentrism; the belief that our feelings and ideas are special and unique and that we are invulnerable |
| placenta | a membrane that permits the exchange of nutrients and waste products between the mother and her developing child but does not allow the maternal and fetal bloodstreams to mix |
| postconventional level | according to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgments are derived from moral principles and people look to themselves to set moral standards |
| preconventional level | according to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgments are based largely on expectation of rewards or punishments |
| preoperational stage | the second of Piaget’s stages, characterized by illogical use of words and symbols, spotty logic, and egocentrism |
| puberty | the period of physical development during which sexual reproduction first becomes possible |
| reflex | a simple unlearned response to a stimulus |
| role diffusion | Erikson’s term for lack of clarity in one’s life roles (due to failure to develop ego identity) |
| rooting | the turning of an infant’s head toward a touch, such as by the mother’s nipple |
| scaffolding | Vygotsky’s term for temporary cognitive structures or methods of solving problems that help the child as he or she learns to function independently |
| schema | according to Piaget, a hypothetical mental structure that permits the classification and organization of new information |
| secondary sex characteristics | characteristics that distinguish the sexes, such as distribution of body hair and depth of voice, but that are not directly involved in reproduction |
| sensorimotor stage | the first of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, characterized by coordination of sensory information and motor activity, early exploration of the environment, and lack of language |
| subjective moral judgment | according to Piaget, moral judgment that is based on the motives of the perpetrator |
| trust versus mistrust | Erikson’s first stage of psychosocial development, during which children do—or do not—come to trust that primary caregivers and the environment will meet their needs |
| umbilical cord | a tube between the mother and her developing child through which nutrients and waste products are conducted |
| uninvolved parents | parents who generally leave their children to themselves |
| zone of proximal development (ZPD) | Vygotsky’s term for the situation in which a child carries out tasks with the help of someone who is more skilled, frequently an adult who represents the culture in which the child develops |
| zygote | a fertilized ovum (egg cell) |
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