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History and Systems
Final Review
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Hippocrates's Method | Observation and objective study can facilitate healing |
| Hippocrates's View of Humors and Health | Health is comprised of balancing the bodily humors. The body also can heal itself |
| Zeno | Questioned the accuracy of our sensation (recall walking exercise). Understanding shaped through our cognition. |
| Socrates' view of Knowledge | Nativist (inborn capacities). Self-knowledge leads to happiness ('unexamined life is not worth living'). Believed in eternal/universal truths |
| Socrates' Death | Forced to drink hemlock as corrupter of the youth. Encouraged the youth through Socratic his method to question everything, challenge authority. |
| Plato's view of Knowledge | Knowledge comes through rationality not through senses. Sensation distorts the Forms (trapped in cave - deception of senses). |
| Plato's Method | Belief in deductive reasoning and in the values of measurement. Nativist - hereditary basis for intelligence |
| Aristotle's Method | Inductive (observational) reasoning - from particular observations we can abstract to universal truths. World is only understandable through study. Empiricist. |
| Galileo | Focused on experimental methods (disciplined). Argued sun is center of universe. Catholic repression of his views that contradicted Christian doctrine. |
| Newton | Believed experimental science can help us make sense of universe - criticized by some for stripping world of wonder/awe (e.g. Goethe). Determined laws of gravity. Theory that nature is governed by predictable laws (challenged by Heisenberg's uncertainty) |
| Empiricism | Mind is constructed through experience |
| Associationism | Mind is formed by experienced that connect with one another. Three most common: similarity, contiguity, and contrast. Influenced behaviorist thinking. |
| Nativism | Mind is constituted by innate functions |
| Locke | Empiricist - development of ideas is mediated by experience (rationality - second-order reflection). People are born good, equal potential. Innate instinct for man is to avoid pain. |
| Berkeley | Empiricist. No matter without mind's apprehension of it. Radical subjectivist theory and how it influences perception. |
| Leibniz | Nativist. Not all human acts are mediated by experience (e.g. inborn dispositions, potentials, habits). Mind is capable of independent activity; mind and body are parallel. |
| James Mill | Feelings do not play a role in development (son, John Stuart had nervous breakdown). Associationist. Sensation -> ideas -> streams of thought. Differentiated between simple and complex ideas and duplex (multiple complex ideas). Mechanical model of mind. |
| John Stuart Mill | Society oppressed women, argued for racial equality. Chemical model of mind - simple & complex interact/mutate/mix together. Believed in natural experiment - actual real-world occurrences. Utilitarian (actions should be judged how they impact happiness) |
| 19th Century view of the Brain | Wars in the 19th century led to major head injuries. Paralleled development in philosophy encouraged observation/discovery. Some experiments were cruel/unethical. |
| Galvani | Experiments showed that nerve activity has an electrical charge/component |
| Du-Bois Reymond | Nerve impulses are electrical in nature |
| Von Helmholtz | Measured muscle contractions (myography) and speed of nerve connection |
| Phrenology | Attempted to understand brain-based functions (pseudo-science). Helped advance notion of discrete mental functions. Became big business (used by employees) |
| Phinneas Gage | Theories about animal brains can apply to human brains. Gage was struck by a tamping iron went through his frontal lobe. Nice, energetic prior to accident and after became impulsive, nasty, rude. Brain = seat of mind |
| Bartholow | Experimented with Mary Rafferty, a woman whose skull partially eroded. Inserted needles and recorded feelings. Pushed experiment and she eventually died. How do we understand the question of his ethics and how it affected his discovery? |
| Wundt | Founder of psychology. Psychology should be an experiment science based on inductive reasoning. Began lab and lectured with live-demonstrations. Forerunner of physiological psychology. |
| Wundt's Principles of Physiological Psychology | Brain is substrate of mental life, developed theories of sensation/perception. Psychological processes shouldn't be reduced but studied in their own right. Mental life comprised of sensations/affects combine chemically. Not a dualist. |
| Wundt's Introspective Method | Experiences were studied with: a) Parameters/training to promote observational discipline & b) Conducted by trained introspectors. Trained introspectors were sources of data. Lab studied: perception, sensation, attention, etc. |
| Titchener's Structuralism | Structuralism - only relevant domain or study for psychology was specific processes/structures studied through introspection |
| Functionalism | Human mental/emotion experience is understood by studying its effects/outcomes rather than by trying to isolate and specifically its component structures |
| Titchener's Methodology | Psychology should only study: a) Discrete mental processes and interrelationships, b) Laws governing formation of connections among mental processes, c) Correlations between the mind (defined as mental processes) and the nervous system |
| Titchener's Contributions | Appreciation for utility of empirical and experimental rigor/discipline. By his example, pushed others to define how they disagreed, thus achieving definitional rigor as they developed competing approaches. |
| Munsterberg | Wanted to expand definition for a broad psychology. Practically a functionalist. Believed psychology could be conducted outside of the lab. Made contributions in forensic and industrial/organizational psychology |
| Munsterberg's Clinical Contributions | Believed in directive methods. Used installation of hope - many others have been cured. 'Fake it til you make it' approach. Goal: alleviation of symptoms |
| Weber | German psychologist who was known as the father of psychophysics (studied touch). Identified threshold at which touch can be perceived and weights could be differentiated. Studied distance btw 2 points necessary for them to be perceived as different. |
| Fechner | Reality/mind related via quantification of relationship btw psych and phys. Found that as magnitude of a stimulus increases, the larger the size of a difference btw stimuli needed to produce a just noticeable difference (jnd) which is nonlinear function. |
| Fechner's Method | Psychology should be studied through careful, rigorous, serial, replicated empirical studies. Methods have been appropriated by other fields such as social psych. Influenced neuroscience (e.g. parallel streams of cs in split brain) |
| Lewin's Topological Theory | Field theory: humans operate in meaningful field. Behavior is a function of person interacting with environment: B=f(P,E). Field contains: goals, vectors (paths of motions), valence (attract/repel). |
| Lewin on Leadership | Diff leadership styles create diff climates in the env. Authoritarian leadership leads to quarreling, scapegoating, min. friendliness; opposite with democratic leadership. Change from authoritarian to democratic slow; democratic to authoritarian quick. |
| Kohler | Studied intelligence and problem-solving in chimps. Questioned theory that animals only learn through trial/error or reward/punishment (Thorndike) vs. that finding was the result of the environment Thorndike created in his experiments. |
| Kohler's discovery | Animals can learn through insight - when a direct solution cannot be found, animals seek indirect solution. Requires certain environmental conditions. Different species have different capacities. Certain animal emotions are innate, independent of exp. |
| History of Treatment of Mentally Ill | Infused with currents of hatred and evil/ “The Witch’s Hammer” (1480): Church’s attempt to purge Europe of pre-Christian religions - execution of 2-5 million ‘witches’, including Jews/Muslims. In Bedlam Cruel treatments: Lobotomies, cold/wet sheets. |
| Early Freud | Studied with Charcot, who used hypnosis to treat hysteria (Freud later abandoned). Freud concluded that relationship w/ pt. was of more importance than any techniques he used. Worked with Breuer, to treat hysteria. |
| Freud's Discoveries | Developed free associative method technique discovered: Transference, Working through, Infantile sexuality, Drives/defenses, Ucs mind, topographic/structural theories, Psychosexual theory of development (Oedipus) |
| Galton | Contemporary of Darwin. Studied human adaptation in Africa developed interest in individual differences. Did series of questionable experiments (e.g. measuring body parts) → genius = hereditary. Environment also plays smaller role. |
| Galton's Discoveries | Movement became influential in Europe and the US; gave scientific justification to colonialism, racism, prejudice against immigrants. Developed normal curve (first and control groups in experimentation, and the twin study method. |
| William James | Probably the most influential of early US psychologists. Wrote very influential texts (Principles of Psychology). Had no interest in Wundt’s careful introspection, Fechner’s careful measurement. He was broad rather than deep. |
| James & Philosophy | Later in life turned to philosophy. Focused on pragmatism – a unique USA approach – “Beliefs do not work because they are true – they are true because they work.” Influenced psychology (e.g. integrative approach to treatment) |
| James' Method | James understood psychology differently from Wundt and Titchener. Saw their structuralist approach as restrictive, reductionistic, not sufficiently appreciative of the role of consciousness as a phenomena worthy of study in its own right. |
| James/Lange Theory of Emotions | Nervous system adjusts to external stimuli; we perceive these changes and then map emotional constructs onto physiological experience. Corollary: changing behavior will give rise to different emotional experience. |
| James' Psychology | Consciousness, emotion, habit, memory chief among them. Adaptive function of consciousness: personal, fluid and ever changing, continuous and not meaningfully reducible to discrete bits |
| Dewey's Contributions | Notion of a reflex arc: psychological acts needed to be appreciated as a unified whole – can’t be dissected into stimulus/response or sensation/idea. Saw stimulus and response as beginning and ending at artificial points |
| Dewey's Method | Emphasized responses/ideas occur in a functional context, which shape them. Believed education should be for everyone. Believed Darwin, but felt that humans were an exceptional species with capacity to make our adaptations consciously |
| Dewey vs. Gestalt I | D - Behavior involved conscious adjustment to the environment; it has an intrinsic pre-history and legacy. G - Less emphasis on historical dimension into psychological thinking |
| Dewey vs. Gestalt II | D - Consciousness therefore cannot be broken down meaningfully into elemental parts. G - Differentiates between goals, valences, and vectors |
| Dewey vs. Gestalt III | D - Emphasized the active role of the individual (characteristics and choices) in determining behavior. G - Viewed behavior as more as shaped by the properties of the field |
| Thorndike I | Functionalist sensibility, but was a bridge to behaviorism.. At Columbia, did famous experiments with cats: Cats were put in boxes and had to learn to escape. At first they used trial and error → needed it less over time. |
| Thorndike II | Found that positive/successful experiences imprint their stimulus response patterns, unsuccessful ones imprint weakly if at all. → Animals learn in situation-specific ways with little capacity to generalize. |
| Thorndike III | Also found that the more the cat had to do to get out of the box, the harder it was for the cat. At the same time, repeated learning in different boxes led to increases in skill and efficiency. |
| Skinner | Advocate of radical behaviorism: all life is only what is reinforced, what has instrumental value. Saw things in an orderly, unmediated way: the more behavior is rewarded the more it occurs; the less it is rewarded the more rapidly it fades |
| Skinner's Operant Conditioning | Reinforcement gained through organism operating on the environment. Entirely under the control of the learner |
| Tolman | Neo-Behaviorist. Concerned with the role of cog in behavior. In rat experiments found that thinking played a role –rats formed cog maps of the mazes. (Latent/implicit, insight learning). Criticized Watson for excluding purpose/cog from psych |
| Watson | Believed behavior was the only appropriate unit for psychological study. Found emotions were expressed in observable behaviors evoked by identifiable stimuli. Found fears could be learned, and unlearned. |
| Watson & The Case of Little Albert | Did work helping children overcome their fears by pairing a favored activity with a feared stimulus in a controlled manner, leading to extinction. Ethical questions about practice. |
| Binet I | Along with Simon, developed test for MR. Compared mental age and chronological age, leading to an intelligence quotient (IQ). Determined basal level (at which child can pass all age tasks) and ceiling level (at which they can’t pass most of them). |
| Binet II | Believed interventions could raise intelligence and that mental age was not endogenous and therefore a poorly conceptualized variable. Opposed both mental age and IQ. Nevertheless, concepts of mental age and IQ were convenient and caught on. |
| Pavlov - Conditioning | When conditioned stimulus (CS; bell) is paired with unconditioned stimulus (UCS; food), once UCS removed, response persists (slobbering) |
| Pavlov - Reinforcement | Use of conditioned stimulus can produce desired behavior |
| Pavlov - Extinction | When conditioned stimulus fails to produce desired reward, behavior slowly fades |
| Pavlov - Generalization | Within certain parameters of similarities of stimuli, reaction to one stimulus can extend to another |
| Pavlov - Differentiation | If one stimulus produces reward and another doesn’t, response to them will vary |
| Gestalt Psychology's 4 Principles: Supersummativity | Whole greater than the sum of the parts |
| Gestalt Psychology's 4 Principles: Phenomenology | Objects must be studied themselves |
| Gestalt Psychology's 4 Principles: Method | Experiments should be life-like and small # of subjects |
| Gestalt Psychology's 4 Principles: Isomorphism | psychological processes have the same form as and directly relate to brain processes |
| Lewin on Race | Most folks were OK being served by black clerk, people cared most about clerk's knowledge/ courtesy. In housing projects, prejudices and preferences for segregation were strongest in partially integrated projets, less prejudice in integrated projects |
Created by:
JRidenour
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