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GEO 100 Final
Final Exam Note Cards
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Process for physical weathering in the formation of soil. | water filles cracks in rock, freezes to ice, then rock chips off |
| Process for chemical weathering in the formation of soil. | |
| Process for mechanical weathering in the formation of soil. | |
| soil horizons: O layer | organic matter |
| soil horizons: A layer | organic matter mixed with rock and mineral fragments |
| soil horizons: E layer | ZONE OF LEACHING- dissolved or suspended materials are carried downward by water |
| soil horizons: B layer | ZONE OF ACCUMULATION- accumulation of iron, aluminum, and clay leached down by the E horizon, contains soluble minerals like calcite in drier climates |
| soil horizons: C layer | weathered parent material, partially broken down |
| what causes soil erosion? | wind, water, urbanization, strip mining |
| what are the controls on soil composition? | the makeup of the material from which its formed, the extent and balance of weathering process |
| what are the controls on soils physical properties? (3) | mineralogy, texture (coarse of fine, well of poorly sorted, rounded, angular, etc.), organic matter present |
| what can we learn from evaluating the color of soil? (black/brown, white/gray, red/yellow) | black/brown-rich in organic matter, white/gray-poor in organic matter, yellow/red-oxidized iron is present |
| what are some of the consequences of soil erosion? | farming becomes difficult (20 billion a year in fertilizers), lowers food quality, lowers persistence of toxic agricultural chemicals due to decrease microbial activity sediment pollution in lakes and streams |
| describe several practices used to minimize soil erosion? | decrease slope of land, keep vegetation in place, near-ground irregularities |
| climate vs weather | climate- long term view of temp, pressure, precipitations, and conditions of the atmosphere, weather- daily description of temp, pressure, precipitation, and conditions of the atmosphere |
| what 3 factors ultimately determine the temperature of the earth? | the amount of sunlight the earth receives, amount of sunlight the earth reflects, the atmospheric retention of reradiated heat |
| what are the main ingredients in the air you breathe? | nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and carbon dioxide |
| what are at least four greenhouse gases that are experience increasing in concentration in the atmosphere? | METHANE, WATER VAPOR, CARBON DIOXIDE, AND CFCS |
| approximately how much of an increase in CO2 has been observed since 1958? | about 57 parts per million |
| what is the biggest contributor to increases in CO2? | human activities |
| describe the atmospheric greenhouse effect. | the warming of the atmosphere due to trapping of infrared rays by atmospheric gases, especially as due to the increased amount of CO2 from fossil fuels combustion |
| where do we find evidence of past CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere? | ice cores |
| what have we learned about past CO2 from ice cores? | the past shows a similar fluctuating heat pattern. |
| describe how ocean currents (shallow and deep) control climate and weather? | shallow surface currents- mostly wind driven, deep currents- mostly driven by density differences caused by variations in T and salinity. |
| what is the themohaline conveyor? | deep water current mostly driven by density differences caused by variations in T and salinity. ocean flow. |
| what happens in an el nino year? | warmer than average ocean surface temps occur in the central and east central equatorial pacific |
| what happens in a la nina year? | occurs when the equatorial counter current weakens accompanied by an increase in easterly winds |
| what are the major sources of the important greenhouse gases? | CARBON DIOXIDE- auto exhaust, respiration, decay METHANE- rice agriculture, swamps, cattle, exhaust, landfills NITROUS OXIDE- agriculture, auto exhaust WATER VAPOR- depends on region CFCs- aerosol hairsprays |
| what evidence/proxies do we have the past climate change? | ice cores, corals, tree rings, and microfossils |
| what effects of climate change might we see in the future? (in the weather) | more powerful and dangerous hurricanes due to warmer ocean temp, increased drought and wildfires, more intense rainfall and flooding |
| what effects of climate change might we see in the future? (as humans) | heat wave related deaths, increased dust particles, allergy and asthma concerns, increased infectious diseases |
| what is the definition of a stream? | any body of flowing water confined within a channel, regardless of size |
| how are streams classified? | first order streams- small and have no other streams flowing into them second order stream- two first order streams meeting together |
| what is a drainage basin (watershed)? | the region from which a stream draws water |
| what is meant by a streams discharge? | the volume of water flowing past a point in a specified length of time |
| what is meant by gradient? | the steepness of the stream channel (the higher the gradient, the steeper the channel) |
| what is meant by velocity? | related partly to discharge and to the steepness of the slope |
| what is meant by base level? | the lowest elevation to which the stream can erode downward |
| describe the different mechanisms by which streams carry material (load types and processes) | as a stream slows down, it starts leaving behind the heaviest, largest particles |
| what factors determine flood severity? | quantity of water , rate at which water enters the stream, porosity and permeability of sediments, topography , and vegetation |
| cut banks | erosion occurs on the side of the channel where water flows strongly |
| point bar | deposition occurs where it slows down a bit |
| what methods do we use to combat flooding? | channelization, levees , dams, and reservoirs |
| ground water | Water held in the pore spaces of bedrock and regolith, in fractures and caves. |
| vadose zone | pores partially filled |
| Phreatic Zone | all pores filled |
| ground water recharge | refills water table |
| ground water discharge | how fast the water moves through and aquifer |
| aquifer | a rock that holds enough water and transmits it rapidly enough to be useful as a source of water |
| aquitard | a rock that may store lots of water but flow is slow (low permeability) |
| Alluvial fan’s form.... | n a tributary stream flows into a more slowly flowing, larger stream • or when a stream flows from mountains into a plain |
| deltas form... | when streams flow into a body of standing water |
| Describe the different mechanisms by which streams carry material (load types and processes). | As a stream slows down, it starts leaving behind the heaviest, largest particles |
| cut bank | erosion occurs on the side of the channel where water flows strongly |
| point bar | Deposition occurs where it slows down a bit |
| braiding happens when... | Braiding happens when flow slows enough to deposit sediments, channel islands can build up to a point where they divide the channel |
| What factors determine flood severity? | Quantity of water – Rate at which water enters the stream – Porosity and permeability of sediments – Topography – vegetation |
| vadose zone | pores partially filled |
| Phreatic Zone | all pores filled |
| ground water recharge | water table refills |
| found water discharge | flow rate of the aquitard |
| aquifer | a rock that holds enough water and transmits it rapidly enough to be useful as a source of water |
| aquitard | a rock that may store lots of water but flow is slow (low permeability) |
| What fossil fuels provide most of the energy in the US? What are the problems with this? | coal |
| What is the ultimate origin of fossil fuel? | Origin of fossil fuels is intimately related to the geologic cycle, Think of them as: solar energy stored in the form of organic material that has been transformed by physical and biochemical processes after burial |
| What is crude oil? | Petroleum-it is believed to have been formed from very small plants and animals that lived in ancient seas and oceans a very long time ago. As these plants and animals die, they sink to the bottom of the sea where they mix with mud, sand, and clay. |
| What are the 2 elements the compounds of crude oil mostly made from? | Crude oil is a naturally occurring liquid composed mostly of hydrogen and carbon |
| How does most oil and gas start its life? | Most oil and gas starts life as microscopic plants and animals that live in the ocean |
| Describe how oil and gas are formed | When the plankton dies it rains down on sea bed to form an organic sludge, If there are any animals on the sea bed these will feed on the organic particles |
| describe how black shale is formed | if there is little/ no oxygen in the water then animals can’t survive and the organic sludge accumulates, Where sediment contains more than 5% organic matter, it forms Black Shale ~ heated |
| Why does oil migrate? Where does it get trapped? | Hot oil and gas is less dense than the source rock |
| Where does oil get trapped? | Oil and gas migrate upwards up through the rock called reservoirs |
| What are some of the products crude oil is refined into? | – Gasoline – Kerosene – Propane – Fuel oil – Lubricating oil – Wax – Asphalt |
| primary recovery | using no techniques beyond pumping |
| secondary recovery | pumping water into reservoir to fill empty pore spaces and buoy more water to the surface |
| enhanced recovery methods | - gas injection – chemical injection – microbial injection – thermal recovery (heat) |
| Describe hydraulic fracturing | Fracturing rock by injection of a highly pressurized fluid (ex. water) to create new channels in the rock which can increase the extraction rates and ultimate recovery of fossil fuels. |
| Why have some places banned this technique? | The practice of hydraulic fracturing has come under scrutiny internationally due to concerns about environmental and health safety, and has been suspended or banned in some countries. |
| How does coal form? | organic materials that escaped oxidation (anaerobic) Begins in swamps rich in plant life, Soils are water saturated which excludes oxygen, Plants partially decompose in this anaerobic environment and slowly accumulate to form peat then carbon is release |
| how is coal classified? | by type and sulfur content • Based on % of C and its heat value |
| How much plant life is required to make 1 foot of coal? | Seven feet of compacted plant life |
| What are some of the environmental issues associated with burning coal | Gases – When burned produces CO2 (much more than oil) and sulfur gases (SO2) – global warming, health effects, acid rain • Ash – Solid waste left after use – Contains silicate minerals and toxic metals |
| List several reasons why we need alternative energy sources for the future | Most of the U.S. supply of recoverable fossil fuels could be exhausted within decades |
| What are the 2 types of processes that can generate nuclear energy? | fission and fusion |
| fission | splitting apart of atomic nuclei into smaller ones, with the release of energy, uranium |
| fusion | the combining of smaller nuclei into larger ones, also releasing energy |
| In what rock types is uranium most likely to be found? | sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks |
| What makes solar energy an attractive option for the future? What are some of its limitations? | pollution free, needs advanced technology, expensive, and some places don’t get sun |
| Where does geothermal energy come from? How do we utilize it to generate energy? | Geothermal energy is utilized by tapping circulating warmed groundwater |
| What are some of the limitations that restrict the potential of geothermal energy? | Geothermal fields have a short lifespan (a few decades) b/c rocks are poor conductors of heat The power plants and the resource are stationary (can’t be moved) Minimal # of sites are suitable |
| What 2 things are required to generate hydropower? Is hydropower renewable? | A large volume of water and rapid movement of water. it is as renewable as long as streams continue to flow |
| What are several pros of using hydropower? What are the environmental issues associated with using it? | A very clean energy source no chemicals added as it flows through generating equipment, |
| What are some limitations to hydropower? | limitation: No dissolved or airborne pollutants produced – Problems related to dam construction • Silting up reservoirs, Habitat destruction Water loss by evaporation, earthquakes= dam failure, limited to location |
| What is meant by the term ‘biofuel’? What are the 3 main categories of biofuels | “Biofuel” is a catchall phrase for various ways of deriving energy from biomass. – Biomass = total mass of all the organisms living on earth Wood fuels • Waste fuels • Alcohol fuels |
| What are the pros of using biofuels? What are the cons? | they are renewable (we can produce and replenish them on the same timescale we use them)..... in principle Pro: We can grow them domestically All biofuels are burned to release their energy.....this means they have the same CO2 problem |
| Understand the basic principles behind using waste and alcohol for fuels. | Waste plant material (after harvest) • Combustible portion of urban refuse • Animal manures • “gas from garbage” (ex. CH4) • Used vegetable oil (from frying food) – Ex. Biodiesel (fuel derived from vegetable or animal fats) |
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jmaatman25
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