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CTOWN Lecture 9
Language & Problem Solving
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Explain the Structure of Language. | Language consists of symbols that convey meaning, Symbols can be combined to generate infinite number of messages |
| Explain the (first) TWO Critical Properties of Language | I. Symbolic – spoken sounds represent objects or concepts (e.g., word towel refers to a class of objects that share similar properties) II. Semantic – arbitrary symbols (e.g., towel) represent shared meaning (among speakers of English) |
| Explain the (second) TWO Critical Properties of Language | III. Generative – limited number of arbitrary symbols can be combined in infinite way to produce infinite number of meaningful messages IV. Structured – rules govern the structure of symbols to form meaning |
| What are Phonemes? | I. Base unit of the of language hierarchy II. smallest speech units (e.g., th, ch, a) |
| What are Morphemes and Sematics? | I. Smallest units of meaning II. Cloak (1 morpheme); unhappy (2 morphemes) |
| What is Syntax? | I. System of rules specifying word arrangement II. Needed to form meaning |
| ARLG: 3 months? | can distinguish phonemes from all languages (ability disappears between 4-12 month) I. First 6 months – vocalisations characterised by crying, cooing, laughter |
| ARLG: 6 months? | babbling begins (e.g., bababababa) – sounds resemble native language II. Reflects ongoing neural development III. Reflects maturation of vocal apparatus |
| ARLG: 10-13 months? | easy to produce sounds that correspond to words I. mama II. dada |
| ARLG: 18 months? | most can produce between 30-50 words I. BUT…understanding is greater than production |
| ARLG: 18-24 months? | vocabulary spurt II. 50 words at 18 months III. 2yr olds learn 20 per week IV. Fast mapping – mapping of new word onto underlying concept with one exposure to the word |
| ARLG: 22-24 months? | I. Telegraphic speech – content words included other critical words omitted (e.g., “get drink” rather than “could you please get me a drink” II. Mean length of utterance (MLU); number of phonemes in a single statement increases rapidly |
| ARLG: 36 months? | I. Over-regularisations – incorrect grammatical rules (e.g., “I did-ed it”; I run-ed fast) II. Mastery of language rules acquired in small steps |
| What is over-extension? | might use word “dog” for all 4 legged animals (e.g., cats, horses, cows, tigers) |
| What is under-extension? | use of the word “dog” for one specific dog only |
| What is Bilingualism? | Acquisition of 2 languages requiring different speech sounds, vocabulary & grammatical rules |
| What factors affect acquisition of a second language? | Age - the younger the better, and Acculturation – the degree to which the person is socially & psychologically integrated into new culture |
| What are the three types of langauge? | Written, spoken, symbolic eg. body language |
| What are the four Attributes of human language? | I. Reference – arbitrary symbols (or sounds) to refer to objects II. Grammar – rules controlling meaning of word strings III. Productivity – expressions can be combined to express novel ideas IV. Situational freedom – more than one context |
| Explain the 'Behaviourist Theory' of Language Development. | Language learned through imitation & reinforcement Vocalisations not reinforced gradually extinguish Other vocalisations shaped through reinforcement Reinforcement used to control correct meaning & word pronunciation |
| Problems with 'Imitation Theory'. | I. Infinite number of sentences II. Over-regularisation (e.g., did-ed; went-ed) |
| Problems with 'Reinforcement Theory'. | I. Parents respond to meaning of child’s utterance II. e.g., Parents are unlikely to correct the utterance “her done dishes” - factually it is correct III. Language development cannot be explained by reinforcement (or shaping) |
| Explain the 'Interactional Theory' of Language Development | Interactional theories combine nativist and behaviourist view Interactional perspectives: I. Cognitive theories II. Social communication theories III. Emergentist theories |
| Explain 'Cognitive Theories' | i. Subset of general cognitive development ii. Depends on maturation and experience |
| Explain 'Social Communication Theories' | i. Emphasise functional value of language development ii. Emphasise social context of language development |
| Explain 'Emergentist Theories' | i. Neural circuitry supporting language development NOT pre-wired ii. Neural circuitry emerges in response to language experiences |
| What is Problem Solving? | Active effort to discover what must be done to move from a current state to a desirable state |
| What are the types of problems? (1) | Problems of inducing structure – discover relations among number, symbols, words, ideas i. Series completion problems ii. Analogy problems |
| What are the types of problems? (2) | Problems of arrangement – arrange parts of the problem to form the solution (solved with insight) i. String problem ii. Anagrams |
| What are the types of problems? (3) | Problems of transformation |
| What are barriers to Problem Solving? | Focus on irrelevant information Functional fixedness Mental set Unnecessary constraints |
| Explain the Approaches to Problem Solving. | Algorithms & heuristics i. Trial and error – try all possible solutions until one works Algorithm – step by step procedure, trying all possible alternatives Heuristics ii. Discard some alternatives, pursue selected alternatives |
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