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Psychology Ch. 10
Ch.10
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Development Psychology? | the study of continuity and change across the life span. |
| Prenatal Development? | Prenatal stage: from conception to birth. Zygote: a single cell that contains chromosomes from both a sperm and an egg. Germinal stage: the 2-week period of prenatal development that begins at conception. |
| Prenatal Development? | Embryoni: the period of prenatal development that lasts from the 2nd week until about the 8th week. Fetal stage: the period of prenatal development that lasts from the 9th week until birth. |
| Prenatal Development? | Myelination: the formation of a fatty sheath around the axons of a brain cell. |
| TERATOGENS - Environmental Factors that can harm developing fetus.?????? | Disease during Pregnancy Rubella - blindness, deafness, heart disease Genital Herpes - paralysis & brain damage AIDS - few survive until 1st birthday Excessive Aspirin - harm to circulatory system |
| TERATOGENS?? | Caffeine - slow fetal growth, premature birth Fetal Alcohol Syndrome - small head, hyper, irritable, retardation, heart defects Smoking - low birth weight, miscarriage…... |
| Infancy?? | Infancy: birth to between 18 and 24 mos. habituation occurs. Motor development: the emergence of the ability to execute physical action. reflexes cephalocaudal rule: the “top-to-bottom” rule (head to feet) proximodistal rule: the “inside-to-outside” |
| Piaget's Four Stages of Cognitive Development | Sensorimotor(Birth-2years)Infant Experiences World through movement and senses, develops schema, begins to act intentionally, and shows evidence of understanding object permanence. |
| Piaget's Four Stages | Preoperational(2-6years) Child acquires motor skills but does not understand conversation or physical properties. Child begins this stage by thinking egocentrically but ends with a basic understanding of other minds. |
| Piaget's Four Stages | Concrete Operational(6-11years) Child can think logically about physical objects and events and understands conversation of physical properties. |
| Piaget's Four Stages | Formal Operational(11years and up)Child can think logically about abstract propositions and hypotheticals. |
| Piaget's theory (emphasize nature) | There are 4 stages of maturational development. There are two complimentary learning processes. ASSIMILATION - incorporating new information into existing schemas. ACCOMODATION - changing schemas in order to fit new information. |
| Vygotsky’sTheory (Emphasizes Nurture) | Vygotsky emphasized the role of social influences. Children learn by observing the actions and attitudes of others by a process called INTERNALIZATION. |
| Vygotsky’sTheory (Emphasizes Nurture) | Zone of Proximal Development - represents the range of ability between what a child can do and his/her full maturational limit. The best environment for a child to be raised in is one in which all learning experiences are within the ZPD. |
| Social Development........ | Attachment: the emotional bond that forms between newborns and their primary caregivers. Secure attachment Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment Avoidant Attachment Temperaments: characteristic patterns of emotional reactivity. (The foundation of personality) |
| Moral Development? | Kohlberg’s stages of moral development: preconventional stage: the morality of an action is primarily determined by its consequences for the actor. |
| Moral Development? | conventional stage: the morality of an action is primarily determined by the extent to which it conforms to social rules. postconventional stage: the morality of an action is determined by a set of general principles that reflect core values. |
| Moral Reasoning? Stage 1 | 3 Stages Stage 1 – Preconventional Stagereconventional Morality 1 - Punishment & Obedience orientation Morality judged in terms of consequences. |
| Moral Reasoning? Stage 1 | 2 - Individualism - Morality judged in terms of what satisfies own and others’ needs. |
| Moral Reasoning? Stage 2 | Stage 2 – Conventional StageConventional Level 3 - Good boy - Good girl orientation Morality judged in terms of adherence to social rules or norms with respect to acquaintances. |
| Moral Reasoning? Stage 2 | 4 - Social order-maintaining orientation Morality judged in terms of social rules or laws applied universally, not just to acquaintances. |
| Moral Reasoning? Stage 3 | Stage 3 – Post-conventional Stageel 5 - Legalistic orientation Morality judged in terms of human rights, which may transcend laws. 6 - Universal ethical principle orientation Morality judged in terms of self-chosen ethical principles. |
| Adolescence? | Adolescence: the period of development that begins with the onset of sexual maturity (about 11-14 yrs.) and lasts until the beginning of adulthood (about 18-21 yrs.). puberty: the bodily changes associated with sexual maturity. |
| Adolescence? | primary sex characteristics: bodily structures that are directly involved in reproduction. secondary sex characteristics: bodily structures that change dramatically with sexual maturity but that are not directly involved in reproduction. |
| Adulthood? | Adulthood: the stage of development that begins around 18-21 yrs. and ends at death. Marked changes in physical and cognitive abilities |
| Adulthood? | Socioemotional selectivity theory states that younger adults rely on useful information while older adults rely on positive information. As adults age, positive affect remains relatively stable while negative affect decreases. |
| Adulthood and Changing Roles? | Married people report being happier than unmarried people for several reasons. Children slightly decrease parents’ happiness. Marital satisfaction fluctuates with life events. |
| Chapter 15 | .................. |
| What is Aggression? Types of Aggression? | Aggression: behavior whose purpose is to harm another. premeditated aggression is when people consciously decide to use aggression to achieve their goals. impulsive aggression is when people aggress spontaneously without premeditation. |
| Types of Aggression? | Frustration-aggression principle: people aggress when their goals are thwarted. Gender differences exist in types of aggressive behavior. |
| ??: Are men more aggressive than women? | no women are |
| Cooperation and... | Cooperation: behavior by two or more individuals that leads to mutual benefit. the prisoner’s dilemma game. |
| ...Altruism | Altruism: behavior that benefits another without benefiting oneself. reciprocal altruism: behavior that benefits another with the expectation that those benefits will be returned in the future |
| ??:What are the risks of cooperating? Are human beings genuinely altruistic? | |
| Group | Group: a collection of two or more people who believe they have something in common. |
| Group:Prejudice | a positive or negative evaluation of another person based on his or her group membership. |
| Group:Discrimination | positive or negative behavior toward another person based on his or her group membership. |
| Group: Changes in behavior due to.. | deindividuation, diffusion of responsibility, and group polarization. |
| ???:How does being in a group change an individual’s behavior? What do people gain from groups? | |
| Reproduction | Reproductive biology may be the reason for gender differences in the selection of reproductive and sexual partners. |
| Reproduction:Attraction is based on?? | situational, physical, and psychological factors. Attraction is based on situational, physical, and psychological factors. mere exposure effect: the tendency for liking to increase with the frequency of exposure |
| Attraction is based on? | appearance may be the most important attribute. similarity of internal qualities (attitudes, beliefs) is deemed attractive. |
| Reproduction: Beauty may be defined as?? | faces and bodies being bilaterally symmetrical, immature features in females and mature features in males, and males having an inverted triangle body shape (also supported by evolutionary theories). |
| ??:What makes women the choosier sex? | |
| ??:Why do people generally like their neighbors? | |
| ??:What is the role of beauty in attraction? | |
| ??:What are the nonphysical attributes that determine attraction? | |
| Hot Science: Beautifully Average | Research shows that faces are considered especially beautiful when their features approximate the average of the human population. composite faces are rated more attractive than component faces. related to nature and mutations. |
| Relationships? | Human infants are born before they are fully developed and thus need committed caretakers (married couples), unlike many other animals. |
| Types of loving relationships? | passionate love: an experience involving feelings of euphoria, intimacy, and intense sexual attraction. companionate love: an experience involving affection, trust, and concern for a partner’s well-being. |
| Relationship: Social exchange | the hypothesis that people remain in relationships only as long as they perceive a favorable ratio of costs to benefits. |
| Relationship:Equity | a state of affairs in which the cost-benefit ratios of two partners are roughly equal. |
| ??:What are the survival benefits of long-term relationships? What are the two basic types of love? | |
| The Hedonic Motive?? | Social influence:control of one person’s behavior by another. Hedonic motive: creating situations which others can achieve more pleasure by doing what we want them to do. Observational learning:one person observes another person being rewarded or punish |
| ??:What makes people susceptible to influence? When can influence based on rewards and punishments backfire? | |
| What is the Approval Motive and Norms? | Approval motive: having others like us, accept us, and approve of us. Norms: a customary standard for behavior that is shared by members of a culture. |
| Norms?? | normative influence: phenomenon whereby one person’s behavior is influenced by another person’s behavior because the latter provides information about what is appropriate. norm of reciprocity: norm people should benefit those who have benefited them |
| Norms: Door in the face technique | Door-in-the-face technique: a strategy that uses reciprocating concessions to influence behavior. |
| Conformity and Obedience?? | Conformity: the tendency to do what others do simply because others are doing it. Asch’s conformity study. Obedience: the tendency to do what authorities tell us to do simply because they tell us to do it. Milgram’s obedience studies. |
| ??:How do we learn such things as etiquette? How can normative influence occur if we don’t know the norms? Why do we obey authorities? | |
| The Accuracy motive>>Attitude | Accuracy motive: we are motivated to be seen as right in the face of others. Attitude: an enduring positive or negative evaluation of an object or event. |
| The Accuracy Motive:Belief and Informational Influence | Belief: an enduring piece of knowledge about an object or event. Informational influence: a phenomenon whereby a person’s behavior is influenced by another person’s behavior because the latter provides information about what is good or true. |
| Persuasion | Persuasion: a phenomenon that occurs when a person’s attitudes or beliefs are influenced by a communication from another person. |
| Persuasion:Systematic and Heuristic | systematic persuasion: a change in attitudes of beliefs that is brought about by appeals to reason. heuristic persuasion: a change in attitudes or beliefs that is brought about by appeals to habit or emotion. |
| Consistency: Foot in the door technique | Foot-in-the-door technique: a strategy that uses a person’s desire for consistency to influence that person’s behavior. |
| Consistency: Cognitive dissonance | Cognitive dissonance: an unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs. |
| ??:How do informational influence and normative influence differ? In what ways do politicians appeal to emotion? How can people’s desire for consistency be used as a tool for persuasion? | |
| Stereotyping?? | Social cognition:pro people come to understand others. Stereotyping:people draw inferences about others based on their knowledge of the categories to which others belong. stereotypes can be inaccurate, overused, self-perpetuating,and automatic (unconcio |
| ??:How do we draw inferences about other people? How can direct observation produce inaccurate stereotypes? How does categorizing something change our perception of it? | |
| Stereotypes Can Be Self-perpetuating | Perceptual confirmation: a phenomenon that occurs when observers perceive what they expect to perceive. Self-fulfilling prophecy: a phenomenon whereby observers bring about what they expect to perceive. |
| stereotype threat.? | Subtyping: the process of creating a modification to a stereotype, rather than abandoning it altogether, when confronted with evidence that clearly disconfirms that stereotype evidence. |
| ??How is a stereotype like a virus? How can stereotyping be reduced or eliminated? | |
| Attribution | an inference about the cause of a person’s behavior. |
| Situational Attribution | situational attribution: when we decide that a person’s behavior is caused by some temporary aspect of the situation. |
| Dispositional Attribution | dispositional attribution: when we decide that a person’s behavior is caused by his or her relatively enduring tendency to think, feel, or act in a particular way. |
| Correspondence bias/fundamental attribution error | the tendency to make a dispositional attribution even when a person’s behavior was caused by the situation. |
| Actor-observer effect | the tendency to make situational attributions for our own behaviors while making dispositional attributions for the identical behavior of others. |
| ??What does a person’s behavior tell us about them? | |
| Where Do You Stand: Are You Prejudiced? | Recent research suggests that even people who think of themselves as egalitarian can harbor unconscious prejudices. .....studies use the Implicit Association Test (IAT). |
| Where Do You Stand: Are You Prejudiced? | People can consciously think one thing while unconsciously feeling another. effects of media and culture, unconscious associations. How can people be held accountable for prejudices they are unaware of? |
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