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bkx PSY201 T1, KY
PSY-201 Test #1, Key Terms
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Scientific method | Approach to knowledge that emphasizes empirical approach, testable hypotheses, systematic & controlled observation, accurate & precise measurements, and objectivity |
| Empirical approach | Approach to acquiring knowledge that emphasizes direct observation and experimentation as a way of answering questions |
| Ethnocentrism | An attempt to understand the behavior of individuals in different cultures based solely on experiences in one’s own culture |
| Hypothesis | A tentative explanation for a phenomenon |
| Multimethod approach | Approach to hypothesis testing that seeks evidence by collecting data using several different research procedures and measures of behavior; a recognition of the fact that any single observation of behavior is susceptible to error in the measuring process |
| Control | Key component of the scientific method whereby the effects of various factors possibly responsible for a phenomenon are isolated; three basic types of control are1) manipulation, 2) holding conditions constant, and 3) balancing |
| Experiment | A controlled research situation in which scientists manipulate one or more factors and observe the effects of this manipulation on behavior |
| Independent variable | Factor for which the researcher manipulates at least two levels in order to determine its effect on behavior |
| Dependent variable | Measure of behavior used by the researcher to assess the effect (if any) of the independent variable |
| Construct | A concept or idea used in psychological theories to explain behavior or mental processes; examples include aggression, depression, intelligence, memory, and personality |
| Operational definition | Procedure whereby a concept is defined solely in terms of the observable procedures used to produce and measure it |
| Validity | The “truthfulness” of a measure; a valid measure is one that measures what it claims to measure |
| Reliability | A measurement is reliable when it is consistent |
| Correlation | Exists when two different measures of the same people, events, or things vary together; the presence of a correlation makes it possible to predict values on one variable by knowing the values on the second variable |
| Casual inference | Identification of the cause or causes of a phenomenon, by establishing covariation of cause and effect, a time-order relationship with cause preceding effect, and the elimination of possible alternative causes |
| Confounding | Occurs when the independent variable of interest systematically covaries with a second, unintended independent variable |
| Applied research | Research that seeks knowledge that will improve a situation |
| Basic research | Research that seeks knowledge to increase understanding of behavior and mental processes and to test theories |
| External validity | The extent to which the results of a research study can be generalized to different populations, settings, and conditions |
| Time sampling | Selection of observation intervals either systematically or randomly with the goal of obtaining a representative sample of behavior |
| Situation sampling | Random or systematic selection of situations in which observations are made with the goal of representativeness across circumstances, locations, and conditions |
| Naturalistic observation | Observation of behavior in a more or less natural setting without any attempt by the observer to intervene |
| Participant observation | Observation of behavior by someone who also has an active and significant role in the situation or context in which behavior is recorded |
| Reactivity | Influence that an observer has on the behavior under observation; behavior influenced by an observer may not be representative of behavior that occurs when an observer is not present |
| Structured observation | Variety of observational methods using intervention in which the degree of control is often less than in field experiments; frequently used by clinical and developmental psychologists when making behavioral assessments |
| Field experiment | Procedure in which one or more independent variables is manipulated by an observer in a natural setting to determine the effect on behavior |
| Unobtrusive (nonreactive) measures | Measures of behavior that eliminate the problem of reactivity because observations are made in such a way that the presence of the observer is not detected by those being observed |
| Physical traces | Source of evidence that is based on the remnants, fragments, and products of past behavior; used as an alternative to or in conjunction with other research methods |
| Archival records | Source of evidence based on records or documents relating the activities of individuals, institutions, governments, and other groups; used as an alternative to or in conjunction with other research methods |
| Selective deposit | Bias that results from the way physical traces are laid down and the way archival sources are produced, edited, or altered, as they are established; when present, the bias severely limits generality of research findings |
| Selective survival | Bias that results from the way physical traces and archives survive over time; when present, the bias severely limits the external validity of research findings |
| Narrative records | Record intended to provide a more or less faithful reproduction of behavior as it originally occurred |
| Measurement scale | One of four levels of physical and psychological measurement |
| Data reduction | Process in the analysis of behavioral data whereby results are meaningfully organized and statements summarizing important findings are prepared |
| Coding | The initial step in data reduction, especially with narrative records, in which units of behavior or particular events are identified and classified according to specific criteria |
| Content analysis | Any of a variety of techniques for making inferences by objectively identifying specific characteristics of messages, usually written communications but may be any form of message; used extensively in the analysis of archival data |
| Interobserver reliability | Degree to which two independent observers are in agreement |
| Correlation coefficient | Statistics indicating how well two measures vary together; absolute size ranges from 0.0 (no correlation) to 1.00 (perfect correlation); direction of covariation indicated by the sign of the coefficient, (+) indicating direct and (-) indicating inverse |
| Demand characteristics | Cues and other information used by participants to guide their behavior in a psychological study, often leading participants to do what they believe the observer (experimenter) expects them to do |
| Observer bias | Systematic errors in observation often resulting from the observer’s expectancies regarding the outcome of a study (i.e., expectancy effects) |
| Correlational research | Research to identify predictive relationships among naturally occurring variables |
| Population | Set of all the cases of interest |
| Sample | Something less than all the cases of interest; in survey research, a subset of the population actually drawn from the sampling frame |
| Representativeness | A sample is representative to the extent that it has the same distribution of characteristics as the population from which it was selected; our ability to generalize from sample to population is critically dependent on representativeness |
| Selection bias | Threat to the representativeness of a sample that occurs when the procedures used to select the sample result in the over- or underrepresentation of a significant segment of the population |
| Nonprobability sampling | A sampling procedure in which there is no way to estimate the probability of each element’s being included in the sample; a common type is convenience sampling |
| Probability sampling | Sampling procedure in which the probability that each element of the population will be included in the sample can be specified |
| Simple random sampling (random selection) | Type of probability sampling in which each possible sample of a specified size in the population has an equal chance of being selected |
| Stratified random sampling | Type of probability sampling in which the population is divided into subpopulations called strata and random samples are drawn from each of these strata |
| Response rate bias | Threat to the representativeness of a sample that occurs when some participants selected to respond to a survey systematically fail to complete the survey |
| Interviewer bias | Occurs when the interviewer tries to adjust the wording of a question to fit the respondent or records only selected portions of the respondent’s answers |
| Cross-sectional design | Survey research design in which one or more samples of the population are selected and information is collected from the samples on at a time |
| Successive independent samples design | Survey research design in which a series of cross-sectional surveys is done and the same question are asked of each succeeding sample of respondents |
| Longitudinal design | Research design in which the same sample of respondents is interviewed (surveyed) more than once |
| Questionnaire | A set of predetermined questions for all respondents that serves as the primary research instrument in survey research |
| Social desirability | Pressures on survey respondents to answer as they think they should respond in accordance with what is most socially acceptable, and not in accordance with what they actually believe |
| Spurious relationship | What exists when evidence falsely indicates that two or more variables are associated |
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