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bkx PSY201 T1, KY

PSY-201 Test #1, Key Terms

QuestionAnswer
Scientific method Approach to knowledge that emphasizes empirical approach, testable hypotheses, systematic & controlled observation, accurate & precise measurements, and objectivity
Empirical approach Approach to acquiring knowledge that emphasizes direct observation and experimentation as a way of answering questions
Ethnocentrism An attempt to understand the behavior of individuals in different cultures based solely on experiences in one’s own culture
Hypothesis A tentative explanation for a phenomenon
Multimethod approach Approach to hypothesis testing that seeks evidence by collecting data using several different research procedures and measures of behavior; a recognition of the fact that any single observation of behavior is susceptible to error in the measuring process
Control Key component of the scientific method whereby the effects of various factors possibly responsible for a phenomenon are isolated; three basic types of control are1) manipulation, 2) holding conditions constant, and 3) balancing
Experiment A controlled research situation in which scientists manipulate one or more factors and observe the effects of this manipulation on behavior
Independent variable Factor for which the researcher manipulates at least two levels in order to determine its effect on behavior
Dependent variable Measure of behavior used by the researcher to assess the effect (if any) of the independent variable
Construct A concept or idea used in psychological theories to explain behavior or mental processes; examples include aggression, depression, intelligence, memory, and personality
Operational definition Procedure whereby a concept is defined solely in terms of the observable procedures used to produce and measure it
Validity The “truthfulness” of a measure; a valid measure is one that measures what it claims to measure
Reliability A measurement is reliable when it is consistent
Correlation Exists when two different measures of the same people, events, or things vary together; the presence of a correlation makes it possible to predict values on one variable by knowing the values on the second variable
Casual inference Identification of the cause or causes of a phenomenon, by establishing covariation of cause and effect, a time-order relationship with cause preceding effect, and the elimination of possible alternative causes
Confounding Occurs when the independent variable of interest systematically covaries with a second, unintended independent variable
Applied research Research that seeks knowledge that will improve a situation
Basic research Research that seeks knowledge to increase understanding of behavior and mental processes and to test theories
External validity The extent to which the results of a research study can be generalized to different populations, settings, and conditions
Time sampling Selection of observation intervals either systematically or randomly with the goal of obtaining a representative sample of behavior
Situation sampling Random or systematic selection of situations in which observations are made with the goal of representativeness across circumstances, locations, and conditions
Naturalistic observation Observation of behavior in a more or less natural setting without any attempt by the observer to intervene
Participant observation Observation of behavior by someone who also has an active and significant role in the situation or context in which behavior is recorded
Reactivity Influence that an observer has on the behavior under observation; behavior influenced by an observer may not be representative of behavior that occurs when an observer is not present
Structured observation Variety of observational methods using intervention in which the degree of control is often less than in field experiments; frequently used by clinical and developmental psychologists when making behavioral assessments
Field experiment Procedure in which one or more independent variables is manipulated by an observer in a natural setting to determine the effect on behavior
Unobtrusive (nonreactive) measures Measures of behavior that eliminate the problem of reactivity because observations are made in such a way that the presence of the observer is not detected by those being observed
Physical traces Source of evidence that is based on the remnants, fragments, and products of past behavior; used as an alternative to or in conjunction with other research methods
Archival records Source of evidence based on records or documents relating the activities of individuals, institutions, governments, and other groups; used as an alternative to or in conjunction with other research methods
Selective deposit Bias that results from the way physical traces are laid down and the way archival sources are produced, edited, or altered, as they are established; when present, the bias severely limits generality of research findings
Selective survival Bias that results from the way physical traces and archives survive over time; when present, the bias severely limits the external validity of research findings
Narrative records Record intended to provide a more or less faithful reproduction of behavior as it originally occurred
Measurement scale One of four levels of physical and psychological measurement
Data reduction Process in the analysis of behavioral data whereby results are meaningfully organized and statements summarizing important findings are prepared
Coding The initial step in data reduction, especially with narrative records, in which units of behavior or particular events are identified and classified according to specific criteria
Content analysis Any of a variety of techniques for making inferences by objectively identifying specific characteristics of messages, usually written communications but may be any form of message; used extensively in the analysis of archival data
Interobserver reliability Degree to which two independent observers are in agreement
Correlation coefficient Statistics indicating how well two measures vary together; absolute size ranges from 0.0 (no correlation) to 1.00 (perfect correlation); direction of covariation indicated by the sign of the coefficient, (+) indicating direct and (-) indicating inverse
Demand characteristics Cues and other information used by participants to guide their behavior in a psychological study, often leading participants to do what they believe the observer (experimenter) expects them to do
Observer bias Systematic errors in observation often resulting from the observer’s expectancies regarding the outcome of a study (i.e., expectancy effects)
Correlational research Research to identify predictive relationships among naturally occurring variables
Population Set of all the cases of interest
Sample Something less than all the cases of interest; in survey research, a subset of the population actually drawn from the sampling frame
Representativeness A sample is representative to the extent that it has the same distribution of characteristics as the population from which it was selected; our ability to generalize from sample to population is critically dependent on representativeness
Selection bias Threat to the representativeness of a sample that occurs when the procedures used to select the sample result in the over- or underrepresentation of a significant segment of the population
Nonprobability sampling A sampling procedure in which there is no way to estimate the probability of each element’s being included in the sample; a common type is convenience sampling
Probability sampling Sampling procedure in which the probability that each element of the population will be included in the sample can be specified
Simple random sampling (random selection) Type of probability sampling in which each possible sample of a specified size in the population has an equal chance of being selected
Stratified random sampling Type of probability sampling in which the population is divided into subpopulations called strata and random samples are drawn from each of these strata
Response rate bias Threat to the representativeness of a sample that occurs when some participants selected to respond to a survey systematically fail to complete the survey
Interviewer bias Occurs when the interviewer tries to adjust the wording of a question to fit the respondent or records only selected portions of the respondent’s answers
Cross-sectional design Survey research design in which one or more samples of the population are selected and information is collected from the samples on at a time
Successive independent samples design Survey research design in which a series of cross-sectional surveys is done and the same question are asked of each succeeding sample of respondents
Longitudinal design Research design in which the same sample of respondents is interviewed (surveyed) more than once
Questionnaire A set of predetermined questions for all respondents that serves as the primary research instrument in survey research
Social desirability Pressures on survey respondents to answer as they think they should respond in accordance with what is most socially acceptable, and not in accordance with what they actually believe
Spurious relationship What exists when evidence falsely indicates that two or more variables are associated
Created by: bamkapowxo
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