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psych101 final
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| memory defined | the retention of information over a period of time |
| Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory | psychological process proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin; proposed that human memory involves a sequence of three stages |
| sensory memory | a type of memory that holds large amounts of incoming information very briefly, but long enough to connect one impression to the next |
| short term memory | the maintenance component of working memory, which holds unrehearsed information for a limited time |
| long term memory | a relatively long-lasting stage of memory whose capacity to store new information is believed to be unlimited |
| flashbulb memory | vivid recollections of personally significant event that, like a snapshot, eem to preserve all the details of the moment |
| encoding | the process of acquiring information and entering it into memory |
| storage | the process of maintaining information in memory over time |
| retrieval | the process of recalling information stored in memory |
| iconic memory | the sensory register for visual information |
| echoic memory | a type of sensory memory and auditory in nature; specific to retaining auditory information |
| automatic processing | refers to "implicit" or intuitive thinking that is effortless, habitual, and without awareness |
| effortful processing | learning or storing (encoding) that requires attention and effort |
| massed practice | a long period of concentrated study “cramming” |
| spaced practice | the student distributes his/her study effort in a given course over many study sessions that are relatively short |
| rehearsal decay | proposes that since memory fades over time, rehearsing information can counteract this temporal decline |
| memory decay | the loss of memory over time |
| serial position effect | refers to the finding that recall accuracy varies as a function of an item's position within a study list (Hermann Ebbinghaus) |
| retroactive inhibition | a causing of forgetting in which new information placed in memory interferes with the ability to recall information already in memory |
| proactive inhibition | a cause of forgetting in which information already in long-term memory interferes with the ability to remember new information |
| chunking | organizing individual stimuli so that they will be perceived as larger units of meaningful information |
| long term potentiation (LTP) | the process of “sensitizing” synapses |
| implicit memory | the unintentional influence of prior experiences |
| explicit memory | the process of intentionally trying to remember something |
| role of hippocampus in memory | a structure in the forebrain associated with the information of new memories |
| recall memory | the retrieval of events or information from the past |
| recognition memory | the ability to recognize previously encountered events, objects, or people |
| relearning | a way to measure forgetting by comparing the number of repetitions needed to learn and, after a delay, relearn the same material |
| priming | improvement in memory that is automatic and it occurs without conscious effort |
| context and memory | refers to improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same |
| mood and memory | the congruence of current mood with the mood at the time of memory storage helps recall of that memory. When we are happy, we are more likely to remember other times when we were happy. |
| Why do we forget? | retrieval failure, interference, failure to store, and motivated forgetting |
| Repression | the unconscious exclusion of painful impulses, desires, or fears from the conscious mind |
| definition of personality | the pattern of psychological and behavioral characteristics by which each person can be compared and contrasted with others |
| unconscious mind | a collection of mental phenomena which manifest within a person's mind but that the person is not fully aware of at the time of their occurrence |
| id | the unconscious portion of personality that contains basic impulses and urges |
| ego | the part of the personality that mediates conflicts between and among the demands of the id, the superego, and the real world |
| super-ego | the component of personality that tells people what they should and should not do |
| conscious mind | the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about in a rational way; the conscious mind includes such things as the sensations, perceptions, memories, feeling and fantasies inside of our current awareness |
| pre-conscious mind | part of the conscious mind and includes our memory. These memories are not conscious, but we can retrieve them to conscious awareness at any time. |
| oral stage | the first of Freud’s psychosexual stages of personality development, in which the mouth is the center of pleasure and conflict |
| anal stage | the second of Freud’s psychosexual stages of personality development, usually occurring during the second year of life, in which the focus of pleasure and conflict shifts from the mouth to the anus |
| phallic stage | the third of Freud’s psychosexual stages of personality development, in which the focus of pleasure and conflict shifts to the genital area |
| Oedipal Conflict | a pattern described by Freud in which a boy has sexual desire for his mother and wants to eliminate his father’s competition for her attention |
| Electra Conflict | a pattern described by Freud in which a young girl develops an attachment to her father and competes with her mother for his attention |
| pleasure principle | the id’s operating principle, which guides people toward whatever feels good |
| reality principle | the operating principle of the ego that creates compromises between the id’s demands and those of the real world |
| defense mechanisms | psychological responses that help protect a person from anxiety and guilt |
| projective test | a personality test designed to let a person respond to ambiguous stimuli, presumably revealing hidden emotions and internal conflicts |
| objective test | a psychological test that measures an individual's characteristics in a way that isnt bias, usually by administiring questions that are marked and compared against scoring mechanisms that are completely standard |
| Maslow's theory | hierarchy of needs; Abraham Maslow 1943; often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid. The five categories (top to bottom) are self-actualization, esteem, love/belonging, safety, and physiological |
| self-actualization | the final level of psychological development that can be achieved when all basic and mental needs are fulfilled and the "actualization" of the full personal potential takes place. |
| Roger's theory | explained that people do things out of free will and that the self is concerned with distinguishing ones values and understanding their association to other people |
| conditions of worth | refer to conditions after which affection is given. It is a term used by Carl Rogers to describe social influences on the self-concept |
| unconditional positive regard (acceptance) | a therapist attitude that conveys caring for and acceptance of the client as a valued person |
| criticisms of humanistic theory | tends to ignore social change research, early incarnations of humanistic psychology lacked a cumulative empirical base, association of humanistic discourse with narcissistic and overly optimistic worldviews is a misreading of humanistic theory |
| self-perception theory | a theory suggesting that attitudes can chance as people consider their behavior in certain situations and then infer what their attitude must be |
| individualistic culture | most children learn early that personal distinction is valued by parents, teachers, and peers; a strong sense of personal self-worth tends to be regarded as less important |
| collectivist culture | tend to think of themselves mainly as part of their families or work groups; fear of rejection by the family or other group is common |
| Rotter | known for developing influential theories, including social learning theory (the expected effect or outcome of the behavior has an impact on motivation of people to engage in that behavior) and locus of control |
| Bandura | responsible for groundbreaking contributions to many fields of psychology, including social cognitive theory, therapy, and personality psychology; famous for his Bobo doll experiment |
| Mischel | specialized in personality theory and social psychology |
| Social Facilitation | a phenomenon in which the presence of others improves a person’s performance |
| -cockroaches | takes them a longer time to complete a complex maze in the presence of other cockroaches than when alone |
| -fishing lines | the children threaded the lines faster when in competition |
| -cyclists | racing cyclists rode faster when paced or in competition; cyclists with a pacemaker covered each mile about 5 seconds quicker than those without. |
| idiographic approach in personality research | based on what Kant described as a tendency to specify, and is typical for the humanities; describes the effort to understand the meaning of contingent, unique, and often subjective phenomena |
| nomothetic approach in personality research | based on what Kant described as a tendency to generalize, and is typical for the natural sciences; describes the effort to derive laws that explain objective phenomena in general |
| Eysenck & Eysenck – 2 factor model | widely used psychological factor analysis measurement of personality, behavior and temperament. It most often consists of a matrix measuring the factor of introversion and extroversion with some form of people versus task orientation |
| Gray 2 factor model | learning theory for heart rate, electrodermal activity, and psychopathy |
| Five Factor Model | a view based on factor-analytic studies suggesting the existence of five basic components of human personality |
| definition of social psychology | the study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior influence and are influenced by the behavior of others |
| social cognition | the encoding, storage, retrieval, and processing, in the brain, of information relating to members of the same species |
| self-concept | the way one thinks of oneself |
| self-esteem | the evaluations one makes about how worthy one is as a human being |
| reference group | categories of people to which people compare themselves |
| social perception | the processes through which people interpret information about others, draw interferences about them, and develop mental representations of them |
| social comparison theory (Festinger) | a theory proposed in 1954 explaining how individuals evaluate their own opinions and desires by comparing themselves to others |
| Relative Deprivation Theory | the belief that, in comparison to a reference group, one is getting less than is deserved |
| Terror Management Theory | based on the notion that humans are the only creatures capable of thinking about the future |
| Sociometer Theory | developed by Mark Leary in 1999 in order to explain the functions of self-esteem |
| in-group | those whom we perceive as being similar to ourselves |
| out-group | those whom we perceive as being different from ourselves |
| Self-Fulfilling Prophecy | a process through which an initial impression of someone leads that person to behave in accordance with that impression |
| Attribution Theory | the process of explaining the causes of people’s behavior, including our own |
| self-perception theory | a theory suggesting that attitudes can change as people consider their behavior in certain situations and then infer what their attitude must be |
| cognitive dissonance theory | holds that people want their thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes to be consistent with one another and with their behavior |
| Fundamental Attribution Error | a bias toward over-attributing the behavior of others to internal causes |
| actor-observer effect | the tendency to attribute other people’s behavior to internal causes while attributing our own behavior (especially failures and errors) to external causes |
| attitude | a predisposition toward a particular cognitive, emotional, or behavioral reaction to objects |
| elaboration likelihood model | a model of how attitudes are formed and changed that was developed by R. E. Petty and J. T. Cacioppo in the early 1980s |
| Milgram obedience study | series of notable social psychology experiments which measured the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience |
| Zimbardo Stanford Prison study | a study of the psychological effects of becoming a prisoner or prison guard; the situation caused the participants' behavior, rather than anything inherent in their individual personalities |
| dispositional attribution | the explanation of individual behavior as a result caused by internal characteristics that reside within the individual, as opposed to outside (situational) influences that stem from the environment or culture in which that individual is found |
| situational attribution | the tendency to analyze a person's actions according to the situation that they are in |
| foot in the door phenomenon | people’s tendency to comply more readily with a large request if they have already agreed to a smaller favor |
| Asch conformity studies | a series of studies published in the 1950s that demonstrated the power of conformity in groups |
| social facilitation | a phenomenon in which the presence of others improves a person’s performance |
| social interference | a reduction in performance due to the presence of other people |
| social loafing | exerting less effort when performing a group task than when performing the same task alone |
| prejudice | a positive or negative attitude toward an entire group of people |
| stereotypes | a false assumption that all members of some group share the same characteristics |
| social discrimination | differential treatment of various groups; the behavioral component of prejudice |
| contact hypothesis | the idea that stereotypes and prejudice toward a group will diminish as contact with the group increases |
| matching hypothesis | the notion that people are most likely to form relationships with those who are similar to themselves in physical attractiveness |
| mere exposure effect | a psychological phenomenon by which people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them |
| similarity – attraction | we tend to take more interest in people who are physically attractive |
| Sherif summer camp study | took boys from intact middle-class families, who were carefully screened to be psychologically normal, delivered them to a summer camp setting (with researchers doubling as counselors) and created social groups that came into conflict with each other. |
| social influence | the process whereby one person’s behavior is affected by the words or actions of others |
| social norms | socially based rules that prescribe what people should or should not do in various situations |
| de-individuation | a concept in social psychology regarding the loosening of social norms in groups |
| aggression | an act that is intended to cause harm to another person |
| frustration-aggression hypothesis | hypothesis that frustration leads to aggressive behavior; frustration develops when an aggressor is unable to. |
| environmental psychology | the study of the relationship between behavior and the physical environment |
| arousal | cost-reward theory |
| bystander effect | a phenomenon in which the chances that someone will help in an emergency decrease as the number of people present increases |
| empathy-altruism theory | helpfulness is seen in those who have empathy with the person in need |
| conflict | the result of a person’s or group’s belief that another person or group stands in the way of their achieving a valued goal |
| social dilemma | a situation in which actions that produce rewards for one individual will produce negative consequences if adopted by everyone |
| prisoner’s dilemma | a social dilemma in which mutual cooperation guarantees the best mutual outcome |
| zero-sum | a social situation in which one person’s gains are subtracted from another person’s resources so that the sum of the gains and losses is zero |
| group think | a pattern of thinking in which group members fail to evaluate realistically the wisdom of various options and decisions |
| an act that is intended to cause harm to another person | |
| frustration-aggression hypothesis | hypothesis that frustration leads to aggressive behavior; frustration develops when an aggressor is unable to. |
| environmental psychology | the study of the relationship between behavior and the physical environment |
| arousal | cost-reward theory |
| bystander effect | a phenomenon in which the chances that someone will help in an emergency decrease as the number of people present increases |
| empathy-altruism theory | helpfulness is seen in those who have empathy with the person in need |
| conflict | the result of a person’s or group’s belief that another person or group stands in the way of their achieving a valued goal |
| social dilemma | a situation in which actions that produce rewards for one individual will produce negative consequences if adopted by everyone |
| prisoner’s dilemma | a social dilemma in which mutual cooperation guarantees the best mutual outcome |
| zero-sum | a social situation in which one person’s gains are subtracted from another person’s resources so that the sum of the gains and losses is zero |
| group think | a pattern of thinking in which group members fail to evaluate realistically the wisdom of various options and decisions |
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