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Chapter 11 Motor
Motor Control and Plasticity
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is spinal animal? | An animal whose spinal chord has been surgically disconnected from the brain to enable the study of behaviors that do not require brain control. |
| What is reflex? | A simple, highly stereotyped, and unlearned response to a particular stimulus. |
| What is movement? | A brief, unitary activity of a muscle or body part; less complex than an act. |
| What is act? | Complex behavior, as distinct from a simple movement. |
| What is motor plan? | A plan for action in the nervous system. |
| What is electromyography (EMG)? | The electrical recording of muscle activity. |
| What is closed-loop control mechanism? | A control mechanism that provides a flow of information from whatever is being controlled to the device that controls it. |
| What is ramp movement? | A slow, sustained motion which is often controlled by the basal ganglia. |
| What is open-loop control mechanism? | A control mechanism in which feedback from the output of the system is not provided to the input control. |
| What is ballistic movement? | A rapid muscular movement which is often organized or programmed in the cerebellum. |
| What is tendon? | Strong tissue that connects muscles to bone. |
| What is antagonist? | A muscle that counteracts the effect of another muscle. |
| What is synergist? | A muscle that acts together with another muscle. |
| What is muscle fiber? | Large, cylindrical cells, making up most of a muscle, that can contract in response to neurotransmitter released from a motoneuron. |
| What is myosin? | A protein that, along with actin, mediates the contraction of muscle fibers. |
| What is actin? | A protein that, along with myosin, mediates the contraction of muscle fibers. |
| What is smooth muscle? | A type of muscle fiber, as in the heart, that is controlled by the autonomic nervous system rather than by voluntary control. |
| What is striated muscle? | A type of muscle with a striped appearance, generally under voluntary control. |
| What is fast-twitch muscle fiber? | A type of striated muscle that contracts rapidly but fatigues readily. |
| What is slow-twitch muscle fiber? | A type of striated muscle fiber that contracts slowly but does not fatigue readily. |
| What is motoneuron? | A nerve cell in the spinal cord that transmits motor messages from the spinal cord to muscles. |
| What is acetylcholine (ACh)? | An amine transmitter that stimulates muscle contraction, but is also found throughout the brain. |
| What is neuromuscular junction (NMJ)? | The region where the motoneuron terminal and the adjoining muscle fiber meet' the point where the nerve transmits its message to the muscle fiber. |
| What is motor unit? | A single motor axon and all the muscle fibers that it innervates. |
| What is innervation ratio? | The ratio expressing the number of muscle fibers innervated a single motor axon. |
| What is final common pathway? | The motoneurons, because they direct all the activity of the spinal cord and brain to the muscles. |
| What is size principle? | The idea that, as increasing numbers of motor neurons are recruited to produce muscle responses of increasing strength, small, low-threshold neurons are recruited first and then large, high-threshold neurons. |
| What is proprioception? | Body sense' information about the position and movement of the body that is sent to the brain. |
| What is muscle spindle? | A muscle receptor that lies parallel to a muscle and sends impulses to the central nervous system when the muscle is stretched. |
| What is gamma motoneuron? | A motor neuron that innervates the contractile tissue in a muscle spindle. |
| What is an alpha motoneuron? | A motoneuron that controls the main contractile fibers of a muscle. |
| What is Golgi tendon organ? | One of the receptors located in tendons that send impulses to the central nervous system when a muscle contracts. |
| What is stretch reflex? | The contraction of a muscle in response to stretch of that muscle. |
| What is pyramidal system or corticospinal system? | The motor system that includes neurons within the cerebral cortex and their axons, which form the pyramidal tract. |
| What is primary motor cortex (M1)? | The apparent executive region for the initiation of movement, primarily the precentral gyrus. |
| What is nonprimary motor cortex? | Frontal love regions adjacent to the primary motor cortex that contribute to motor control and modulate the activity of the primary motor cortex. |
| What is supplementary motor area (SMA)? | A region of nonprimary motor cortex that receives input from the basal ganglia and modulates the activity of the primary motor cortex. |
| What is premotor cortex? | A region of nonprimary motor cortex just anterior to the primary motor cortex. |
| What is mirror neuron? | A neuron that is active when an individual makes a particular movement, but is also active when an individual sees another individual make that same movement. |
| What is extrapyramidal system? | A motor system that includes the basal ganglia and some closely related brainstem structures. |
| What is reticular formation? | An extensive region of the brainstem that is involved in arousal. |
| What is reticulospinal tract? | A tract of axons arising from the brainstem reticular formation and descending to the spinal cord to modulate movement. |
| What is red nucleus? | A brainstem structure related to motor control. |
| What is rubrospinal tract? | Axons arising from the red nucleus in the midbrain and innervating neurons of the spinal cord. |
| What is basal ganglia? | A group of forebrain nuclei found deep within the cerebral hemispheres. |
| What is striatum? | The caudate nucleus and putamen together. |
| What is central pattern generator? | neural circuitry that is responsible for generating a rhythmic pattern of behavior, such as walking. |
| What is muscular dystrophy? | A disease that leads to degeneration of and functional changes in muscles. |
| What is dystrophin? | A protein that is needed for normal muscle function. |
| What is myasthenia gravis? | A disorder characterized by a profound weakness of skeletal muscles; caused by a loss of acetylcholine receptors. |
| What is autoimmune disorder? | A disorder caused when a person's immune system mistakenly attacks her or his own body, thereby interfering with normal functioning. |
| What is polioviruses? | A class of viruses that destroy motoneurons of the spinal cord and brainstem. |
| What is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)? | Also called lou gehrig's disease. A disease in which motoneurons and their target muscles waste away. |
| What is flaccid paralysis? | A loss of reflexes below the level of transection of the spinal cord. |
| What is plegia? | Paralysis, the loss of the ability to move. |
| What is paresis? | Partial paralysis. |
| What is spasticity? | Markedly increased rigidity in response to forced movement of the limbs. |
| What is apraxia? | An impairment in the ability to begin and execute skilled voluntary movements, even though there is no muscle paralysis. |
| What is ideomotor apraxia? | The inability to carry out a simple motor activity in response to a verbal command, even though this same activity is readily performed spontaneously. |
| What is ideational apraxia? | An impairment in the ability to carry out a sequence of actions, even though each element or step can be done correctly. |
| What is Parkinson's disease? | A degenerative neurological disorder, characterized by tremors at rest, muscular rigidity, and reduction in voluntary movement, that involves dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra. |
| What is substantia nigra? | A brainstem structure in humans that innervates the basal ganglia and is named for its dark pigmentation. |
| What is a-synuclein? | A protein that has been implicated in Parkinson's disease. |
| What is parkin? | A protein that has been implicated in Parkinson's disease. |
| What is l-dopa? | The immediate precursor of the transmitter dopamine. |
| What is Huntington's disease? | A progressive genetic disorder characterized by abrupt, involuntary movements and profound changes in mental functioning. |
| What is huntington? | A protein produced by a gene that, when containing too many trinucleotide repeats, results in Huntington's disease in a carrier. |
| What is ataxia? | An impairment in the direction, extent and rate of muscular movement, often caused by cerebellar pathology. |
| What is decomposition of movement? | Difficulty of movement in which gestures are broken up into individual segments instead of being executed smoothly, a symptom of cerebellar lesions. |
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