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AP Psych Chapter 2
The Brain and Behavior
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Neuron | a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system |
| Soma | The cell body containing the nucleus |
| Dendrite | the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages |
| Axon | the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands |
| Myelin Sheath | a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next |
| Synapse | the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron |
| Action Potential | a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon |
| Resting Potential | when a neuron is not sending a signal, it is "at rest." When a neuron is at rest, the inside of the neuron is negative relative to the outside. |
| Selective Permeability | an axon's surface is selective about what it lets in. |
| Depolarization | When a cell is stimulated, positively charged sodium ions rush in, causing the area to become less negatively charged. |
| Threshold | the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. |
| Absolute Refractory Period | the interval during which a second action potential absolutely cannot be initiated, no matter how large a stimulus is applied. |
| Relative Refractory Period | the interval immediately following during which initiation of a second action potential is inhibited but not impossible. |
| All-or-None Response (Principle) | neurons fire down the complete length of the cell if a sufficient level of excitatory impulses are received. |
| Excitatory Signals | substance that increases likelihood that a neuron will fire. |
| Inhibitory Signals | substance that decreases the likelihood that a neuron will fire |
| Neurotransmitters | chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gap between neurons |
| Acetylcholine | a neurotransmitter that, among its functions, triggers muscle contraction; undersupply is linked to Alzheimer's disease. |
| Dopamine | function: influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion ; malfunctions: undersupply is linked to Parkinsons Disease and an oversupply is linked to Schizophrenia. |
| Serotonin | function: affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal ; malfunctions: undersupply linked to depression. Prozac and some other antidepressant drugs raise serotonin levels. |
| Endorphins | natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure |
| Norepinephrine | function: helps control alertness and arousal ; malfunctions: undersupply can depress mood. |
| GABA | function: a major inhibitory neurotransmitter ; undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia. |
| Glutamate | function: a major excitatory neurotransmitter, also involved in memory ; malfunctions: oversupply can overstimulate brain, producing migraines or seizures (which is why some people avoid MSG, monosodium glutamate, in food). |
| Agonist | substance that binds to a cell's receptors and either mimics or stimulates the action of another substance. |
| Antagonist | substance that binds to a cell's receptors and prevents the action of another substance. |
| Glial Cells | Cells in the nervous system that support,nourish and protect neurons. |
| Nervous System | the body's speedy, electrochemical communication system, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. |
| Central Nervous System | the brain and spinal cord |
| Peripheral Nervous System | the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body. |
| Nerves | neural "cables" containing many axons. |
| Sensory Neurons | neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system. |
| Interneurons | central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. |
| Motor Neurons | neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands. |
| Somatic Nervous System | the division of the perihperal nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. |
| Autonomic Nervous System | the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. |
| Sympathetic Nervous System | the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. |
| Parasympathetic Nervous System | the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. |
| Neural Networks | interconnected neural cells - with experience, networks can learn. |
| Endocrine System | the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. |
| Hormones | chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine system, that are produced in one tissue and affect another. |
| Adrenal Glands | a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys that secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress |
| Pituitary Glands | the endocrine system's most influential gland - under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. |
| Thyroid Gland | Regulates body metabolism; different hormone levels associated with differing behavioral characteristics. |
| Gonads | Glands related to sexual characteristics and the processes involved in reproduction. |
| Lesions/Ablation | tissue destruction - A brain lesion reffers to a naturally or experimentally damaged or removed brain. |
| Electroencephalogram (EEG) | an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. |
| Frontal Lobe | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; invloved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. |
| Parietal Lobe | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; includes the sensory cortex. |
| Occipital Lobe | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field. |
| Temporal Lobe | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear. |
| Motor Cortex | an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. |
| Sensory Cortex | the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations. |
| Association Areas | areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. |
| Cerebral Cortex | the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. |
| Brainstem | the oldest part and central coe of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions. |
| Medulla | the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing. |
| Cerebellum | the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance. Also plays a role in navigation (human GPS). |
| Reticular Formation | a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal. |
| Thalamus | the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. |
| Hypothalamus | a neural struture lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities such as hunger & thirst, helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion (rage, pleasure, and sexual desire). |
| Hippocampus | a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. |
| Limbic System | a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and agression and drives such as those for food and sex. Contains the hippocampus and the amygdala. |
| Pons | is a portion of the hindbrain that connects the cerebral cortex with the medulla. It also serves as a communications and coordination center between the two hemispheres of the brain. HELPS YOU PAY ATTENTION/FOCUS! |
| Amygdala | two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion (particularly rage and fear). |
| Corpus Callosum | The part of the brain, large band of neural fibers that joins the two cerebral hemispheres and carrying messages between them. |
| Hindbrain | portion of the brain that is responsible for basic life support functions like motor activity, posture, equilibrium and sleep patterns. |
| Midbrain | area of the brain that serves as a relay station for information. |
| Forebrain | largest part of the brain, contains cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, thalamus and hypothalamus. |
| Broca's Area | controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. |
| Wernicke's Area | controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; in the left temporal lobe |
| Split Brain | a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them. |
| Plasticity | the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development. |
| Aphasia | impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding) |
| Biological Psychology | a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior. |
| CAT Scans | computerizes series of x-rays taken from different angles that are compiled to create an image of the area in question |
| PET Scans | a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task |
| MRI | a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue |
| Reflex | a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus |
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