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A&P: Exam 3
Lymphatic, Immune, and Respiratory systems
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What does Dalton's law state? | that the total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of its individual gases |
| what does Henry's law state? | that at the air-water interface, the amount of gas that dissolves in water is determined by its solubility in water and its partial pressure in the air (assuming constant temp) |
| what does Boyle's law state? | the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume (assuming constant temp) |
| what does Charles's law state? | the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature (assuming constant pressure) |
| why do oxygen and carbon dioxide each diffuse in their own direction at the respiratory membrane? | because of the greater pressure of blood CO2 than alveolar air, and the greater alveolar air O2 pressure than blood (per Henry's law) |
| what factors affect the efficiency of alveolar gas exchange? | the pressure gradients and solubilities of the gases, membrane thickness and area, and ventilation-perfusion coupling |
| under what pressure condition would the diffusion of O2 into the blood be less? | higher elevelavtion (partial pressures of atmoshperic gases are lower, meaning less pressure to diffuse O2 into blood) |
| under what pressure condition would the diffusion of O2 into the blood be greater? | in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber (higher pressures in chamber means greater pressure to diffuse O2 into blood) |
| why do equal amounts of O2 and CO2 diffuse across the alveolar membrane, even though O2 has a much greater pressure gradient? | because CO2 is much more soluble in water, causing it to diffuse rapidly |
| why does left ventricular failure cause changes in pressure of O2 and CO2 in the blood leaving the lungs? | because the consequent build-up of blood pressure in the lungs causes capillary filtration, which thickens the respiratory membranes with edema |
| why do emphysema, lung cancer, and tuberculosis decrease blood pressure of O2? | because the effects of the disease decrease respiratory membrane surface area |
| what is ventilation-perfusion coupling, and how does it affect alveolar gas exchange? | it is the physiological response that increases or decreases the flow of blood so that it reaches the areas of the respiratory membrane that provide the best ventilation |
| what is lymph and where does it originate? | lymph is a clear, colorless fluid that is similar to blood plasma but lower in protein. it originates as tissue fluid that is taken up by the lymphatic vessels. |
| where do the cells of the immune system originate. | all cells of the immune system originate from hemopoietic stem cells in the red bone marrow. |
| of what is pus composed? | it is composed of dead neutrophils and macrophages, tissue debris, and tissue fluid. |
| what is the function of interleukins? | interleukins are a type of cytokine, and therefore they act as chemical messengers, specifically between leukocytes. |
| to which proteins (which have antigens on them) can cytotoxic T cells and helper T cells respond, respectively? | cytotoxic T cells respond only to MHC-I, and helper T cells respond only to MHC-II. |
| from what do memory T cells descend and what do they do? | memory T cells descend from normal T cells. they quickly respond to reexposure to a pathogen (called T cell recall response. |
| what are memory B cells? | memory B cells are descendants of B cells that react with an anamnestic response to pathogen reexposure. they spend their time in the germinal centers of the lymph nodes. |
| what happens with some antibodies in autoimmune disease? | some of the antibodies that normally react against foreign antigens react against similar self-antigens. |
| how much of the capillary filtrate do lymphatics recover? | lymphatics recover 15% of the capillary filtrate. |
| what are the functions of the lymphatic system? | recovery of the fluid that is absorbed from capillaries into the tissue spaces, immune response to foreign matter, and absorption of lipids that are not absorbed by the blood capillaries (via lacteals) |
| what are lacteals and what is their role? | lacteals are special lymphatic vessels in the small intestine that absorb the lipids not absorbed by the capillaries. |
| what forces help lymph to flow? | rhythmic contractions of the lymphatic vessels, movement of skeletal muscle, the thoracic pump, and the pulsating of nearby blood vessels. |
| what cells are involved in immune surveillance and the destruction of diseased and foreign cells? | natural killer cells. they bind to the enemy cell and release perforins to make a hole it, and also secrete protein degrading enzymes called granzymes to further attack the cell. |
| what are the only lymphatic organs with afferent lymphatic vessels? | lymph nodes; they need these vessels so that lymph can pass through them for filtration. |
| what are the primary cell types of the nasal cavity? | olfactory epithelium and respiratory epithelium. |
| what are goblet cells? | wineglass-shaped cells of the respiratory epithelium that secrete mucous and move the mucous toward the pharynx via its cilia. |
| what is chemotaxis? | the attraction of a mobile cell (like a neutrophil) to chemicals that guide it to a site of injury or infection. |
| what are interferons? | proteins secreted by infected cells, which alert neighboring cells to keep them from becoming infected. |
| what is a pyrogen? | a pyrogen is an agent released by either a foreign or a native cell that induces fever in the body. |
| what is the primary function of basophils? | to get defensive leukocytes where they are needed, which it does by secreting attractive leukotrienes, by secreting a histamine that speeds blood flow, or by secreting heparin to ensure a pathway free of blood clots. |
| what are cytokines? | a class of small proteins that serve as a chemical communication network among immune cells. interferons, interleukins, tumor necrosis factor, and chemotactic factors are types of cytokines. |
| what is an epitope? | epitopes are the regions of an antigenic molecule that stimulate an immune response. |
| where are most naive t cells located? | naive t cells colonize lymphatic tissues and organs ("naive" refers to the fact that they have not engage in enemy attack yet) |
| what do antibodies do? | antibodies (immunoglobulins) are released by plasma cells to disarm antigens by neutralization, complement fixation, agglutination, or precipitation. |
| what is the predominant immunoglobulin in plasma and what is it responsible for? | immunoglobulin G; it is the main source of humoral immunity. |
| which immunoglobulins provide passive immunity to fetuses and infants? | IgG provides it to the fetus through the placenta, and IgA provides it to the infant through colostrum and breastmilk. |
| what is the role of B cells? | b cells phagocytize antigens bound to their receptors, links some of its epitopes to its MHC-II proteins, then displays these on the cell surface (the process of antigen-presenting). they also differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells. |
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