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Psychology: modules
Modules 1,2,4,5,6
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Wilhelm Wundt | The "father" of psychology. Psychology born in 1879. |
| Structuralism | First prominent system for organizing psychological beliefs. |
| Gestalt Psychology | Alternative systems. The whole is different from the sum of its parts. |
| William James | Studied the functions of consciousness. |
| Functionalism | The way consciousness helps people adapt to their environment. |
| Sigmund Freud | A stereotypic therapist. |
| Psychoanalytical Psychology | Focused on abnormal behavior and relied on personal observation. |
| Ivan Pavlov | Observable behaviors |
| Abraham Maslow | Emphasized conscious experience |
| Cognitive Perspective | Focus on how people think-how they take in, process, store, and tetrieve information. |
| Biological Perspective | Attempts to understand behavior by studying the biological structures and substances underlying a given behavior thought or emotion. |
| Social-Cultural Perspective | Focus on how thinking and behavior change depending on the setting or situation. |
| Behavioral Perspective | Believe we learn certain responses through rewards, punishments and observations. |
| Humanistic Perspective | Consider how healthy people strive to reach their full potential. |
| Psychodynamic Perspective | Consider how our helping behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts. |
| Researcher Bias | Observations may be influenced by what you discover. Bias occurs when any factor unfairly increases the likelihood that the researcher will come to a perticular conclusion. |
| Critical Thinking | Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden balues, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. |
| Participant Bias | A tendency for research participants to respond in a certain way because they know they are being observed or they believe they know what the researcher wants. |
| Naturalistic Observation | A technique in which the observer makes no attempt to manipulate or control the situation. |
| Correlational Study | A research project designed to discover the degree to shich two variables are related to each other. |
| Positively Correlated | Both variables increase together |
| Negatively Correlated | One variable increases while other decreases |
| Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Studies | A research technique that studies the same group of individuals over a long period of time. |
| Cross Sectional Studies | A research technique that compares individuals from different age groups at one time. |
| Operational Definitions | A specification of the exact procedures used to make a variable specific and measurable for reaserch purposes |
| Independant Variable | The research variable that a researcher actively manipulates, and if the hypothesis is correct, will cause a change in the dependent variable. |
| Dependent Variable | The behavioral or mental process where the impact of the independent variavle is measured. |
| Experimental Group | The participants in an experiment who are exposed to the treatment, that is, the independent variable. |
| Control Group | The participants in an experiment who are not exposed to the independent variable. |
| Random Assignment | Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance minimizing pre-existing differences among different groups |
| Confounding Variables | In an experiment, a variable, that could influence the dependent variable. |
| Double-Blind Procedure | An experimental procedure in which both the research in which both the research participants are ignorant to the expected outcome. |
| Placebo | A nonactive substance or condition. |
| Data Analysis | Run the experiment and collect the data. Then analyze the numbers, using statistics, to find out if the hypothesis is supported. |
| Replication | Repeating a research study to see if the results are reliable. |
| Prenatal | Before birth. Starts at conception and ends at birth. |
| Zygote | Fertilized egg; it enters a two-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo. |
| Genes | The biochemical units of heredity that direct how our cells become specialized for various functions during prenatal development. |
| Embryo | The developing human organism from about two weeks after fertilization through the end of the eighth week. |
| Fetus | The developing human organism from nine weeks after conception to birth. |
| Teratogens | Substances that cross the placental barrier and prevent the fetus from developing normally. |
| Fetal Alcohol Syndrome | When the mother drinks alcohol during the pregnancy, the child is born with FAS. -symptoms: noticable facial misproportions. |
| Rooting Reflex | A baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to open the mouth and search for the nipple" this is an automatic, unlearned response. |
| Temperament | A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity. |
| Maturation | Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience. |
| Jean Piaget | Pioneer in the study of developmental psychology who introduced a stage theory of cognitive development that led to a better understanding of children's thought processes. |
| Cognition | All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering. |
| Schemas | Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information. |
| Assimilation | Interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas. |
| Accommodation | Adapting one's current understandings to incorporate new information. |
| Sensorimotor Stage | The stage during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. |
| Object Permanence | The awareness that things continue to exist even when tou cannot see or hear them. |
| Preoperational Stage | The stage when a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. |
| Conservation | The principal that properites such as mass, volume, and a number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects. |
| Egocentrism | The inability to take another's point of view |
| Concrete Operational Stage | The stage of cognitive development during which children gain the mental skills that let them think logically about concrete events. |
| Formal Operational Stage | Stage of cognitive development during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts and form strategies. |
| Stranger Anxiety | The fear of strangers that infants comonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age. |
| Attachment | An emotional tie with another person; young children demonstrate attachment by seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on seperation. |
| Imprinting | The process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life. |
| Authoritarian Parenting | A style of parenting marked by making demands on the child, being responsive setting and enforcing rules, and discussing the reasons behind the rules. |
| Permissive Parenting | High in warmth, rarely discipline their children. Low communication from parent to child, high child to parent. Expectations of maturaty is low. |
| Authoritative Parenting | High in warmth, moderate discipline, lots of talking and negotiating, set rules, enforcing them. Communication is high, moderate maurity expectations. |
| Continuity and Stages | Attachment and development. Cognitive development-continueous Motor development-stages |
| Stability and Change | Temperament-can change for infants. |
| Nature and Nurture | Heredity and environment shapes a child's development. |
| Adolescence | The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence. |
| Puberty | The period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproducing. |
| Primary Sex Characteristics | The body structures that make sexual reproduction possible. |
| Secondary Sex Characteristics | Non-reproductive sexual characteristics. |
| Sexual orientation | An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either the other gender or one's own gender. |
| Reasoning | A sequence of increasingly sophisticated cognitive abilities. |
| Formal Operational Stage | When we may develop adult thinking and reasoning. |
| Morality | One's sense of right and wrong. |
| Lawrence Kohlberg | Psychologist, authored a theory of moral resoning to demonstrate how our way of thinking about moral situations changes with our level of development. |
| Preconventional Moral Reasoning | Most primitive level; avoid punishment or gain reward. Most under 9. |
| Conventional Moral Reasoning | Concern to fit in and play one's role as a good citizen. Strong desire to follow rules and laws. |
| Post conventional Moral Reasoning | References to universal ethical principles that represent the rights or obligations of all people. |
| Erik Erikson | Created an eight-stage theory of social development. |
| Stages of Psychosocial Development | -Experimentation -Rebellion -'self'-ishness -optimism and energy |
| Continuity and Stages | -Development relies on both -Attention to gradual growth within stages |
| Stability and Change | -Adolescence affected by both -Temperament-constant -Relationships/behaviors-change |
| Nature and Nurture | -Nature:spark feelings and interests -Nurture: learn to express |
| Social Clock | The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement. |
| Emerging Adulthood | When adolescents go into true adulthood |
| Menopause | The time of natural cessation of menstruation |
| Alzheimer's Disease | A progressive and irreversible brain disorger characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language and physical functioning. |
| Senile Dementia | The mental disintegration that acompanies alcoholism, tumor, stroke, aging, and most often, Alzheimer's Disease. |
| Memory | Younger people remember things better |
| Recall | Tasks that give us no clues to jog our memories |
| Recognition | See something and remember what is is |
| Fluid Intelligence | One's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood. |
| Crystallized Intelligence | One's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age. |
| Life Events | Family and work-related events-bring major lifestyle alterations. |
| Erik Erikson | Author of the psychosocial developmental stage theory. |
| Generatively | Being productive and supporting future generations. |
| Sigmund Freud | Founder of psychoanalysis and the psyhosexual stages of development. |
| Love | -Intimate self-disclosure -Shared emotional and material support -Similar interests and values |
| Emptying of the Nest | When children move out of the house |
| Dying and Death | People die different ways |
| Hospice | Recieve comforting medical attention, but avoid death-defying interventions. |
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