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Philosophy is best defined as
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Part of the task of philosophy is to
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Philosophy Exam

Final Exam

QuestionAnswer
Philosophy is best defined as the discipline that teaches us how to articulate, hold, and defend our beliefs.
Part of the task of philosophy is to arrive at general truths about almost everything.
The method of philosophy is to proceed rationally through reasoning and argumentation.
An argument is best defined as a set of propositions from which a view may arise or be defended.
An argument can be divided into premises and conclusion.
A deductive argument can be distinguished from an inductive argument because only a deductive argument can guarantee the truth of its conclusion.
What is a valid argument? The impossibility of having true premises and a false conclusion
A sound argument is a valid argument with all true premises.
Claiming that Nietzsche’s philosophical views are wrong because he died in an insane asylum is an example of ad hominem.
Claiming that Kant’s philosophical views are correct because only his views are endorsed by the Critique of Pure Reason by Kant, is an example of begging the question.
According to your text and study guide, what is the goal of metaphysics? To ask and attempt to answer the most basic questions about the universe
The word metaphysics comes from two Greek words meaning placed beyond the physics.
Ontology is best defined as the study of being as such.
Cosmology is best defined as the study of the universe.
Which issues would one most likely encounter in ontology? Change and individuation
Which of the following is the origin of substance? Two Latin words meaning to stand under
In philosophy, substance can be used in all the following ways except to indicate accumulated wealth.
Philosophically speaking, to what do accidents refer? Those things said of a substance which are not essential
A fairly close synonym for accidents is features
Two early modern philosophers who focused on the independence of substance were Leibniz and Spinoza.
Plato’s theory of metaphysics can be described as two-tiered, the two tiers being being and becoming.
In Plato’s allegory of the cave, the sun serves as a metaphor for what? The form of the good
What is the best way in which to think of a Platonic form? As a pattern
Learning, for Plato, amounts to recollection
What are innate ideas? Remains of what we knew of the forms before we were born
Aristotle’s ontology consists in ten categories—one of substance, nine of attributes
What, for Aristotle, is a secondary substance? Something like a genus or species
What are Aristotle’s four kinds of cause? Efficient, material, formal, and final
What is a telos? A goal or purpose
What is the logical tool Aristotle invented to help him do ontology? Syllogism
Fatalism is the view that certain events are decreed for individual humans and will come to pass without respect to antecedent conditions.
According to the study guide, there are at least this many levels of predestination: four
A paradox is best defined as a self-contradictory conclusion drawn from seemingly acceptable premises.
What is the first premise in the paradox of freedom? All human behavior is causally determined
What is the second premise in the paradox of freedom? Man is morally responsible for some of his behavior
What is the third premise in the paradox of freedom? Man is never morally responsible for behavior which is causally determined.
The best definition for causal determinism is that every event has a sufficient natural cause
How does hard determinism solve the paradox of freedom? By accepting premises 1 and 3 but rejecting 2
How does soft determinism solve the paradox of freedom? By accepting premises 1 and 2 but rejecting 3
What is a compatibilist? One who holds that moral responsibility and causal determination are compatible
Which premise of the paradox of freedom would a compatibilist definitely reject? _____________________________________________________________________
The existentialist solution to the paradox of freedom is best characterized as humans as agents must be regarded as free
Who said, “Man’s life is a line that nature commands him to describe upon the surface of the earth, without his ever being able to swerve from it…”? d'Holbach
Hume would best be considered a soft determinist
Mill and d’Holbach would probably disagree with one another on human moral responsibility
A soft determinist would probably define freedom as a power of acting or not acting according to the determinations of the will.
Aristotle defines a compulsory act as an act whose origin is from outside the agent
Skinner’s attitude toward hard determinism may best be characterized as optimistic
Who said, “I am responsible for everything, in fact, except for my very responsibility”? Sartre
Burgess worries about determinism because it robs man of the choice to be good.
What is the problem of self-identity? What makes a person the same person over time
What does Descartes mean when he claims that the soul is unextended? The soul is not in space.
This is False of Locke’s memory theory of self-identity except that consciousness is irrelevant to self-identity.
What does Hume mean by a bundle? A bundle of ideas and impressions
Which of the following is a problem for the body theory of self-identity? The body changes over time.
Which of the following is a problem for the no-self view of self-identity? It is contradicted whenever we refer to “ourselves.”
Descartes’ two substances are unextended mind and extended body.
How does dualism contrast with monism with respect to persons? Dualism hold that there are two substances, monism only one
According to your study guide, which philsopher first posed the problem of interaction for Descartes' view? Hobbes
Descartes dealt with the problem of interaction by positing that interaction occurred in the pineal gland.
Which of the following most nearly represents Spinoza's view of mind and body? Mind and body are two attributes of the one substance, GOD
What is occasionalism? The view that God directly causes interaction on the occasion of a mental event
Who holds the theory of pre-established harmony? Leibniz
Epiphenomenalism contends that the body can act on the mind, but the mind cannot act on the body
The logical behaviorist would contend that mental terms really express dispositions to act in certain ways
Which of the following philosophers would most nearly agree with logical behaviorism? Ryle
The mind/brain identity theory states that The mind is the same as the brain
Shaffer argues against Smart's view of the mind on the ground that mental events are not in space, but physical events are
What does Leibniz's law of the indiscernibility of identicals claim? If two things are identical, they must have all properties in common
What does eliminative materialism hold? Mental talk is just a holdover from folk psychology
Epistemology is best defined as the theory of knowledge
The word epistemology is derived from two Greek words meaning the study of exact knowledge
A skeptic is one who denies the possibility of knowledge
Knowledge is best defined as justified, true, belief
What does Descartes mean by cogito? I think that is, experience cognitive activity
In the last state of his doubting, what does Descartes posit as a possible reason for his deception? An evil demon
At the end of his argument, Descartes declares that there is one thing he cannot doubt, and which serves as a bedrock truth. What is it? His existence
What does Descartes consider the ultimate guarantor of human knowledge? God
For Descartes, when is an intutition most likely to be wrong? When not clearly and distinctly perceived
What is a rationalist? One who holds that knowledge can be had apart from experience
What beliefs did Descartes hold concerning innate ideas?. We are born with them
What is Descartes doing with his wax example? He is trying to prove that we can know some things apart from experience by an intuition of the mind.
What is direct realism? The view that the external world is perceived directly
Another name for direct realism is naive realism
Representational realism is the view that perceptions are in our minds, but are perceptions of the external world.
Phenomenalism differs from representational realism in that it claims that our perceptions do not necessarily correspond to the external world.
Why does Descartes believe in the reality of the external world? Because he thinks denying it entails the God is a deceiver
Solomon points out that Descartes' arguments concerning the possibility of human knowledge in the Meditations are sometimes criticized as being begging the question
A major problem with Descartes' argument is that he seems to assume God in order to prove God.
Another point of Cartesian epistemology often attacked is the view concerning innate ideas
Which philosopher argues against innate ideas? Locke
Which philosopher replies to the arguments against innate ideas? Leibniz
What is empiricism? The view that knowledge is founded on sensory experience
What does Locke mean when he compares the mind to a tabula rasa? The mind is like a blank sheet of paper-it has no content initially.
What are primary qualities? Powers in bodies which produce ideas in our minds representing real features of that body
Name a primary quality Shape
Most empiricists locate secondary qualities in the perceiver because their subjective nature so dictates
name a secondary quality Touch
What does Locke call substance? Something; I know not what
Why can Locke's epistemological views be criticized as impure? Because, contrary to his thesis, he posits entities by intuition
What does Berkely mean by "Esse est aut percipi aut percipere"? If it is neither perceived nor perceiving, it does not exist
Why is Berkeley called an objective realist He is not called an objective realist
What allows Berkeley to account for different perceivers sharing common experiences of objects? God
Which of the following are accepted by both Locke and Berkeley? The Self
What is Hume's fork? His division between relations of ideas and matters of fact
Whcih of the following pairs of view most nearly coincide with Hume's? Empiricism and phenomenalism
On what does Hume ground matter-of-fact reasoning? Cause/effect relations
What does Hume regard as foundational for our notion of causation? Experience
Why does Hume consider Induction worthless he doesnt
On which of the following do Berkeley and Hume differ? Belief in God
How is morality best defined? A basic set of rules governing actions
How is ethics best define The study of moral principles
Cultural relativism claims that different moralities are observed by different cultures
Ethical relativism any morality is as correct as any other.
Ethical absolutism better than ethical relativism, since it is not self refuting.
Psychological egoism claims that we always act out of self-interest
Ethical egoism claims that we ought to act for ourselves
Ethical altruism is probably most consistent with psychological egoism
Ethical altruism claims that we ought to act in the interest of others as well as self
A problem for the God command theory of ethics is that disputes arise concerning God's will
A philospher who accepts the conscience theory of morality is Rosseau
How does Aristotle define virtue? A habit or trained faculty whos characteristic is moderation
According to Aristotle, what do we choose for itself, but not for the safe of something else? Happiness
According to Aristotle, which of the following actions/passions admits of no mean? Envy
According to aRistole, what are the extremes of the virtue of wittiness? Buffoonery and boorishness
Which of the following people would be happiest in Aristotle's estimation? The Philospher
According to Hume, morality is determined by sentiment
Hume contends that morality would lose it regulatory force on human conduct if we were to lose two qualities. What are they? 1. warm feelings for virtue 2. disgust for vice
Which of the following statements most nearly reflects Rosseau's attitude toward psychological egoism and original sin? He probably rejects both
What does Rosseau call the devine instinct, immortal voice from heaven? The Conscience
What does Kant consider to be the one thing in the world, or even out of it, which is unqualified good? A good will
From which Greek word is deontological derived? Dein
According to Kant, why should we do our duty? Because it is our duty
How does Kant define duty? the necessity for acting out of respect for the law
What is Kant's first formulation of the categorical imperative? Act only on that maxim where you can, at the same time, will that it should be ca universal law
What is Kant's second formulation of the categorical imperative? So act as to treat humanity, whether in thine own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end, never as a means
What name does Kant give to a subject principle of action? A Maxim
Why does Kant feel that suicide is wrong? Because it treats someone as a means to escape painful circumstances
Why does Kant feel that making a false promise is wrong? Because it would make promising contradictory if it became a universal law of nature
What criticism did Mill lodge against Kant's ethics? Kantian ethics seem deontological but his arguments amount to consequentialism
Why are utilitarian ethics usually considered consequentialist? Because utilitarian ethics ar econcerned with outcomes
What is hedonism? The claim that pleasure is the ultimate good
What are the two sovereign masters under which, according to Bentham, nature has placed mankind? Pleasure and pain
What is another name for the happiness calculus? The felicific calculator
Whis is the principle of utility? That principle which approves or disapproves of every action according to the tendency which it appears to have to increase or decrease happiness.
What are the four circumstances that Bentham identifies as affecting the value of a pleasure or pain in the first instance? 1. Intensity 2. Duration 3. Certainty 4. Propinquity
What are the two circumstances that Bentham identifies as affecting the value of a pleasure or pain in subsequent instances? Purity and Fecundity
What does Bentham mean by the duration of a pain? the length of time the pain lasts
What does Mill consider a higher pleasure? one which almost all who have experience with it prefer
What word does Bentham and Mills NOT use as a synonym for pleasure? Joy
One difference between dogmatic and natural theology is that domatic theology depends on revelation, but natural theology does not.
Besides dogmatic and natural, another division of theology is mystical
In philosophy, one who doubts whether or not God exists is called an Agnostic
A deist hold that God is unconcerned with human beings
A pantheist holds that God is identical to the universe
A theist would conceive of God as possessing personal aspects
Anselm defines God as that than which nothing greater can be thought
How does anselm claim that the fool can say in his heart what cannot be though? he distinguishes thinking of a thing from thinking of words
Another philosopher who uses the ontological proof is Descartes
Gaunilo objects to the ontological proof because the same argument could be used to prove a perfect island
kant objects to the ontological proof because existence is not a real property
A cosmological proof differs from an ontological proof in that an ontological proof is a priori; a cosmological proof is a not
St. Thomas's first proof is dependent on the concept of motion
An objection to Thoma's first proof is that it is not impossible to have an infinite series of movers
St. Thomas's second proof is a cosmological proof
In st.Thomas's third proof, he distiguishes necessary from contingent being.
St. Thomas's firth proof is a teleological proof
How does Hume argue against Thomas's firth proof? By arguing from the imperfections of the world
What does Kant call his assertion about God? A postulate of practical reason
Two attributes of God questioned by the problem of evil are power and goodness
An attempt to explain the presence of evil and suffering in the world is called theodicy
One traditional reply to the problem of evil is to account for evil as a result of misuse of free will
Augustine considers corruptible objects of limited goodness
According to Augustine, for god, evil does not exist.
In Augustine's view, if something is deprived of all good, it becomes nonexistent
How does Augustine account for the origin of evil? from a misuse of free will
Bayle contends that free will is not a good gift
Bayle likens God to all the following, except a sea captain who allows a sailor to get drunk so he may punish him
Bayle considers evil a result of God's will
In the except from Dostoyevsky, Ivan exemplifies unjust suffering by relating a story of a child torn to pieces by a general's dogs
Kierkegaard likens the motivation for accepting Christianity to a leap of faith
In Dostoyevsky's story of the Grand Inquisitor, whom does the Grand Inquisitor threaten to have burned at the stake? Jesus
Leibniz likens evil to dark patches in a painting.
Marx considers religion a human invention
Nietzche considers the New Testament as a sing against the spirit
Nietzche considers Christianity as siding with the weak and base
What does Nietzsche mean by "God is dead"? The concept of the Christian God is not worthy of belief
Freud considers religion as wish fulfillment
Freud argues that an illusion is derived from human wishes
Created by: JosephMenefe
 

 



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