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BU PS 261
Professor Belle Spring 2011
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Natural Selection | the evolutionary process by which heritable traits that best enable organisms to survive and reproduce in particular environments are passed to ensuing generations |
| Evolutionary Psychology | the study of evolution of cognition and behavior using principles of natural selection |
| Culture | the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next |
| Norms | standards for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe 'proper' behavior |
| Personal Space | the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies. Its size depends on our familiarity with whoever is near us |
| Gender | the characteristics, whether biological or socially influenced, by which people define male or female |
| Empathy | the vicarious experience of another's feelings; putting oneself in another's shoes |
| Aggression | physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone. In laboratory experiments, this might mean delivering electric shocks or saying something likely to hurt another's feelings |
| Androgynous | from ANDRO (man) and GYN (woman)--thus mixing both masculine and feminine characteristics |
| Gender Role | a set of behavior expectations (norms) for males and females |
| Interaction | a relationship in which the effect of one factor (such as bio) depends on another factor (such as environment) |
| Conformity | a change in behavior or belief as the result of real or imagined group pressure |
| Obedience | Acting in accord with a direct order or command |
| Compliance | conformity that involves publicly acting in accord with an implied or explicit request while PRIVATELY DISAGREEING |
| Acceptance | conformity that involves both acting and believing in accord to social pressure |
| Sherif's studies of Norm Formation | Dark room--pinpoint of light moves around--asks how far it went--next day, same thing but w/2 others--after a few days, group opinion shifts so they all give the same answer--ONE YEAR later, they still give the group norm response |
| Autokinetic Phenomenon | self (auto) motion (kinetic)--the apparent movement of a stationary point of light in the dark |
| The Werther Effect | imitative suicidal behavior--after 'the sorrows of a young wether' (book) more men committed suicide after the character. |
| Asch's studies of Group Pressure | seated 6th out of 7--asks which line (of 3) matches the original--1st two rounds, everyone gives the same answer, 3rd round your answer is different-- do you lie to group pressure? 3/4 conformed at least once--37% of responses were conforming |
| Milgram's Obedience Experiments | authority v. conscience--teacher v. experimenter v. learner--65% of experimenters went to 450 volts (high as you can go) |
| Cohesiveness | a "we feeling"--the extent to which members of a group are bound together, such as by attraction for one another |
| Normative influence | conformity based on a person's desire to fulfill others' expectations: often to gain acceptance |
| Informational influence | conformity occurring when people accept evidence about reality provided by other people |
| Culture | people in more collectivist countries conform more than those in individualistic ones (China v. France) |
| Reactance | a motive to protect or restore one's sense of freedom. Arises when someone threatens our freedom of action |
| Persuasion | process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes or behaviors |
| Central Route to Persuasion | occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond within favorable thoughts |
| Peripheral Route to Persuasion | Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness |
| Elements of Persuasion | 1. the communicator 2. the message 3. how the message is communicated 4. the audience |
| credibility | believability. A credible communicator is perceived as both expert and trustworthy |
| sleeper effect | a delayed impact of a message that occurs when an initially discounted message becomes effective, as we remember the message but forgot the reason for discounting it. |
| Attractiveness | having qualities that appeal to an audience. An appealing communicator (often someone similar to the audience) is most persuasive on matters of subjective preference |
| Primacy effect | other things being equal, information presented first usually has the most influence |
| recency effect | info presented last sometimes has the most influence less common than primacy effects |
| Channel of Communication | the way the message is delivered--whether face-to-face, in writing, on film, or in some other way |
| Two-step flow of communication | the process by which media influence often occurs through opinion leaders, who in turn influence others |
| Need for cognition | the motivation to think and analyze. Assessed by agreement with items such as "the notion of thinking abstractly is appealing to me" and disagreement w/ "I only think as hard as I have to" |
| Cult (also called new religious movement) | a group typically characterized by (1) distinctive ritual and beliefs related to its devotion to a god or a person, (2) isolation from the surrounding "evil" culture, and (3) a charismatic leader. (A sect, by contrast, is a spinoff from a major religion) |
| Attitude inoculation | exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available |
| Group | two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive themselves as "us" |
| co-participants | co-participants working individually on a noncompetitive activity |
| social arousal | boosts performance on easy tasks and hurt performance on difficult tasks |
| social facilitation | 1) original meaning: the tendency of people to perform simple or well-learned tasks BETTER when others are present. 2) Current meaning: the strengthening of dominant responses in the presence of others |
| Factors of arousal | 1. Evaluation apprehension 2. Distraction 3. Mere presence |
| Social Loafing | the tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal when they are individually accountable |
| Free riders | people who benefit from the group but give little in return |
| Deindividuization | people lose self-awareness, w/loss of individuality and restraint in group situations |
| Factors of Deindividuization | group size, physical anonymity, arousing and distracting activities |
| Group polarization | group-produced enhancement of members' pre-existing tendencies; a strengthening of the members' average tendency, not a split within the group |
| Risky Shift Phenomenon | group decisions are usually riskier than individuals i.e. question (what would your likeliness be?) |
| Social Comparison | evaluating one's opinions and abilities by comparing oneself with others |
| Pluralistic Ignorance | A false impression of what most other people are thinking or feeling; or how they are responding |
| Groupthink | the mode of thinking that persons engage in when concurrence-seeking becomes so dominant in a cohesive in-group that it tends to override realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action |
| Leadership | the process by which certain group members motivate and guide the group |
| Task leadership | leadership that organizes work, sets standards, and focuses on goals |
| Social leadership | leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support |
| Transformational leadership | leadership that, enabled by a leader's vision and inspiration, exerts significant influence |
| Misinformation effect | incorporating "misinformation" into one's memory of the event after witnessing an event and receiving misleading information about it |
| Reactance | a motive to protect or restore one's sense of freedom. Reactance arises when someone threatens our freedom of action |
| Social Psychology | the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another |
| Social Neuroscience | An integration of biological and social perspectives that explores the neural and psychological bases of social and emotional behaviors |
| culture | the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next |
| Social Representations | socially shared beliefs--widely held ideas and values, including our assumptions and cultural ideologies. Our social representations help us make sense of our world |
| Hindsight bias | the tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, one's ability to have foreseen how something turned out, also known as the "I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon" |
| theory | an integrated set of principles that explain and predict observed events |
| hypothesis | a testable proposition that describes a relationship that may exist between events |
| Field Research | research done in natural, real-life settings outside the laboratory |
| Correlational Research | the study of the naturally occurring relationships among variables |
| Experimental research | the study of the naturally occurring relationships among variables |
| Experimental Research | Studies that seek clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or more factors (independent variables) while controlling others (holding them constant). |
| Random Sample | survey procedure in which every person in the population being studied has an equal chance of inclusion |
| Framing | the way a question or an issue is posed; framing can influence people's decisions and expressed opinions |
| Independent variable | the experimental factor that a researcher manipulates |
| dependent variable | the variable being measured, so called because it may depend on manipulations of the independent variable |
| random assignment | the process of assigning participants to the conditions of an experiment such that all persons have the same chance of being in a given condition |
| mundane realism | degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations |
| experimental realism | degree to which an experiment absorbs and involves its participants |
| deception | in research, an effect by which participants are misinformed or misled about the study's methods and purposes |
| demand characteristics | cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected |
| informed consent | an ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate |
| debriefing | in social psychology, the postexperimental explanation of a study to its participants. Debriefing usually discloses any deception and often queries participants regarding their understandings and feelings |
| spotlight effect | the belief that others are paying more attention to one's appearance and behavior than they really are |
| illusion of transparency | the illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by others |
| self-concept | a person's answers to the question, "Who am I?" |
| self-schema | Beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information |
| possible selves | images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future |
| social comparison | evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others |
| individualism | the concept of giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications |
| collectivism | giving priority to the goals of one's groups (often one's extended family or work group_ and defining one's identity accordingly |
| interdependent self | construing one's identity in relation to others |
| planning fallacy | the tendency to under-estimate how long it will take to complete a task |
| impact bias | overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events |
| immune neglect | the human tendency to underestimate the speed and the strength of the "psychological immune system," which enables emotional recovery and resilience after bad things happen |
| differing attitudes | differing implicit (automatic) and explicit (consciously controlled) attitudes toward the same object. Verbalized explicit attitudes may change with education and persuasion; implicit attitudes change slowly, with practice that forms new habits |
| self-esteem | a person's overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth |
| self-efficacy | a sense that one is competent and effective, distinguished from self-esteem, which is one's sense of self-worth. A bombardier might feel high self-efficacy and low self-esteem |
| locus of control | the extent to which people perceive outcomes as internally controllable by their own efforts or as externally controlled by chance or outside forces |
| learned helplessness | the sense of hopelessness and resignation learned when a human or animal perceives no control over repeated bad events |
| self-serving bias | the tendency to perceive oneself favorably |
| self-serving attributions | a form of self-serving bias; the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to oneself and negative outcomes to other factors |
| defensive pessimism | the adaptive value of anticipating problems and harnessing one's anxiety to motivate effective action |
| false consensus effect | the tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and one's undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors |
| false uniqueness effect | the tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desirable or successful behaviors |
| group-serving bias | explaining away outgroup members' positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions )while excusing such behavior by one's own group) |
| self-handicapping | protecting one's self-image with behaviors that create a handy excuse for alter failure |
| self-presentation | the act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways designed to create a favorable impression or an impression that corresponds to one's ideals |
| self-monitoring | being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one's performance to create the desired impression |
| priming | activating particular associations in memory |
| Belief Perseverance | persistence of one's initial conceptions, as when the basis for one's belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives. i.e. babies w/ colic due to bottle milk--perceptions stay |
| controlled processing | "explicit" thinking that is deliberate, reflective, and conscious |
| Automatic processing | "implicit" thinking that is effortless, habitual, and without awareness--corresponds to "intuition" |
| Over confidence Phenomenon | tendency to be more confident than correct--to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs |
| Confirmation Bias | tendency to search for info that confirms one's preconceptions |
| Heuristic | a thinking strategy that enables quick, efficient judgements |
| Representative Heuristic | the tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling a typical member. i.e. linda the bank teller/active feminist |
| Availability Heuristic | A cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of thinking in terms of their availability in memory. If instances of something come readily to mind, we presume it to be common place. i.e. shark attacks, famous v. unfamous |
| Counterfactual thinking | imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but didn't. i.e. olympians--1.3.2 on happiness scale |
| Illusory correlation | conception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship that actually exists |
| illusion of control | the idea that chance to our influence i.e. gambling |
| regression toward the average: | statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward one's average. i.e high-->low test scores, "Harold" arriving to school late |
| Misattribution | mistakenly attributing a behavior to the wrong source. i.e. sexual interest due to friendliness |
| Attribution theory | analyzes how we explain people's behavior. i.e. attributing behavior to internal dispositions or external situations |
| Spontaneous trait Inference | effortless, automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someone's behavior |
| Situational attribution | attributing behavior to the environment i.e. poor student -->physical and social circumstances |
| Dispositional attribution | attributing behavior to a person's disposition and traits: i.e. poor student -->lack of motivation and ability |
| Fundamental Attribution Error | tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and over estimate dispositional influences upon other's behavior |
| Self-awareness | a self-conscious state in which attention focuses on oneself. It makes people more sensitive to their own attitudes and dispositions |
| Self-fulfilling prophecy | a belief that leads to its own fulfillment. i.e. told stocks will soar--then they do |
| Behavior Confirmation | a type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations. i.e. telephone convo w/ attractive woman=nice woman |
| attitude | a favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone (often rooted in one's beliefs, and exhibited in one's feelings and intended behavior) |
| Implicit Association Test (IAT) | a computer-driven assessment of implicit attitudes. The test uses reaction times to measure people's automatic associations between attitude objects and evaluative words. Easier pairings are taken to indicate stronger unconscious associations |
| Role | a set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave |
| foot-in-the-door phenomenon | the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request |
| low-ball technique | a tactic for getting people to agree to something. People who agree to an initial request will often still comply when the requester ups the ante. People who receive only the costly request are less likely to comply with it. |
| cognitive dissonance | tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions. Dissonance may occur when we realize that we have acted contrary to our attitudes or made a decision favoring one alternative despite reasons favoring another |
| insufficient justification | reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is "insufficient" |
| self-perception theory | the theory that when we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them much as would someone observing us, by looking at our behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs |
| Overjustification effect | the result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing |
| self-affirmation theory | people often experience a self-image threat, after engaging in an undesireable behavior; and can compensate by affirming another aspect of the self. threaten people's self-concept and they will either refocus or do good deeds in another domain |
| Prejudice | a preconceived negative judgment of a group and its individual members |
| Stereotype | a belief about the personal attributes of a group of people. Stereotypes are sometimes over generalized, inaccurate, and resistant to new information |
| Discrimination | unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members |
| Racism | 1. An individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given race or 2. institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given sex |
| Social Dominance Orientation | a motivation to have one's group dominate other social groups |
| Authoritarian Personality | a personality that is disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance of outgroups and those lower in status |
| Ethnocentric | believing in the superiority of one's own ethnic group and having a corresponding disdain for other groups |
| Realistic Group Conflict theory | the theory that prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources |
| Ingroup Bias | the tendency to favor one's own group |
| Outgroup | "them" group we perceive as distinctly different from our own |
| Ingroup | "us" group of people sharing a sense of belonging |
| Social identity theory | categorize--we put people into categories identify--associate ourselves w/certain groups and gain self-esteem |
| Social Identity | the "we" aspect of a self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships |
| Personal Identity | Our sense of personal attributes and attitudes |
| Infrahumanization | denying human attributes to outgroups |
| Terror management | according to "terror management theory" people's self-protective emotional and cognitive responses (including adhering more strongly to their cultural world views and prejudices) when confronted with reminders of their mortality |
| Outgroup homogeneity effect | perception of outgroup members as more similar to one another than are ingroup members. thus "they are alike; we are diverse." |
| own-race bias | the tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race |
| Stigma consciousness | a person's expectation of being victimized by prejudice or discrimination |
| group-serving bias | explaining away outgroup members' positive behaviors also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions (while excusing such behavior by one's own group) |
| just-world phenomenon | the tendency or people to believe that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get |
| Subtyping | accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by thinking of them as "exceptions to the rule |
| Subgrouping | accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by forming a new stereotype about this subset of the group |
| stereotype threat | a disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. Unlike self-fulfilling prophecies that hammer one's reputation into one's self-concept, stereotype threat situations have immediate effects |
| adaptation-level phenomenon | the tendency to adapt to a given level of stimulation and thus to notice and react to changes from that level. |
| social comparison | evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others |
Created by:
megblauvelt
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