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PSYC 2210
Final Exam
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| empirical evidence | information obtained through systematic observations and experiments |
| developmental scientists | experts who study development - regardless of their disciplinary training |
| prenatal period | the period of development from conception to birth |
| infancy | the period of development from birth to about age 2 |
| early childhood | the period of development from about ages 2 to 6 |
| middle childhood | the period of development from about ages 6 to 11 |
| adolescence | the period of development from about ages 11 to 20 |
| young adulthood | the period of development from about ages 20 to 40 |
| middle adulthood | the period of development from about 40 to 65 |
| later adulthood | the period of development from about age 65 on |
| physical development | the domain of development that includes changes in size, shape, outward appearance, and inner physical functional changes in physical capabilities; and changes in the structure and function of the brain |
| cognitive development | the domain of development that involves changes in intellectual abilities, including memory, thinking, reasoning, language, problem solving, and decision making |
| socioemotional development | the domain of development that includes changes in feelings and motivation, temperament and personality, and relationships with others. Sometimes referred to as psychosocial development. |
| development | relatively enduring growth and change that makes an individual better adapted to the environment, by enhancing the individual's ability to engage in, understand, and experience more complex behavior, thinking and emotions. |
| developmental trajectory | a pathway of developmental change that connects the past, present, and future. |
| theory | a set of ideas and principles based on empirical findings that explain related natural phenomena. |
| psychoanalytic theory | the theory of human behavior and development, first articulated by Sigmund Freud, that focuses on the inner self and how emotions determine the way we interpret our experiences and thus how we act. |
| four stages of psychosexual development | oral, anal, phallic, genital |
| Erikson's theory of psychosocial development | there is a progression of social and emotional stages that people go through from infancy to later adulthood. |
| learning theory | the theory of human behavior, based on principles of classical and/or operant conditioning, as well as observational learning, that stresses the role of external influences on behavior |
| classical conditioning | a process of associative learning by which a subject comes to respond in a desired manner to a previously neutral stimulus that has been repeatedly presented along with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits the desired response |
| operant conditioning | a process of learning in which the likelihood of a specific behavior is increased or decreased as a result of reward or punishment that follows |
| behavioral therapy | an attempt to change behavior through the deliberate use of rewards and punishments |
| social learning theory | a theory of human behavior that emphasizes the ways in which individuals learn by observing others and through the application of social rewards and punishments |
| observational learning | a process of learning based on the observation of others |
| cognitive-developmental perspective | a perspective on human development that emphasizes qualitative changes in the ways that individuals think as they mature, mainly associated with the work of Jean Piaget. |
| sensorimotor stage | in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development from birth to about age 2, during which infants learn my relating sensations to motor action |
| preoperational stage | in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development from approximately ages 2 to 7 , during which children acquire a mental storehouse of images and symbols, especially spoken and written words |
| concrete operational stage | in Piaget's theory, from approximately ages 7 to 11, during which children make giant strides in their ability to organize ideas and think logically, but where their logical reasoning is limited to real objects and actual experiences and events |
| formal operational stage | in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development that emerges approximately at age 11, during which individuals develop the ability to apply logical reasoning to abstract phenomena |
| assimilation | In Piaget's theory, the child's attempt to fit new information into his or her existing way of thinking. |
| accommodation | In Piaget's theory, the child's adaptation of an existing way of thinking in response to new information |
| ecological perspective | a perspective on human development that emphasizes the contexts, both proximal and distant, in which development occurs, often associated with the work of Urie Bronfenbrenner. |
| dynamic systems theory | a perspective on human development that views the many facets of development as part of a single, dynamic, constantly changing system |
| human genome | the complete set of genes for the creation and development of the human organism |
| nativism | the idea that human characteristics are innate or inborn, not acquired or learned |
| preformationism | the seventeenth-century theory of inheritance that hypothesized that all the characteristics of an adult were prefigured in miniature within either the sperm or the ovum |
| genetic determinism | the idea that human qualities are genetically determined and cannot be changed by nurture or education |
| eugenics | a philosophy that advocates the use of controlled breeding to encourage childbearing among individuals with characteristics considered "desirable" and discourage (or eliminate) childbearing among those with "undesirable" traits |
| tabula rasa | "blank slate"; the notion, usually associated with the philosopher John Locke, that nothing about development is predetermined and that the child is entirely a product of his or her environment and experience |
| heritability | the extent to which a phenotypic trait is genetically determined |
| twin studies | a method for estimating heritability in which the degree of similarity in a trait that is observed among identical twins is compared with that observed among fraternal twins |
| identical twins | twins born when a single fertilized egg divides, resulting in the birth of two individuals whose genetic makeup is identical |
| fraternal twins | twins born when two separate eggs are fertilized, who are therefore no more alike genetically than other brothers and sisters |
| adoption studies | a method for estimating heritability in which similarities between children and their adoptive parents are compared with similarities between children and their biological parents |
| family relatedness studies | a method for estimating heritability by comparing the similarity of children who vary in their genetic relatedness (siblings, half-siblings, step-siblings) |
| shared environment | in behavior genetics, the environment that siblings have in common |
| nonshared environment | in behavioral genetics, the environment that siblings do not have in common, such as the peers with whom they are friends |
| theory of evolution | typically refers to the variant of the model of evolution formalized by Charles Darwin, which asserts that organisms evolve and change through the process of natural selection |
| survival of the fittest | within Darwin's theory of evolution, the notion that organisms that are best equipped to survive in a given context are more likely to reproduce and pass their genetic material on to future generations |
| natural selection | within Darwin's theory of evolution, the process through which adaptive traits that are heritable become more common while maladaptive traits that are heritable become less common |
| epigenesis | the gradual process through which organisms develop over time in an increasingly differentiated and complex fashion as a consequence of the interaction between genes and the environment |
| stem cells | primitive, undifferentiated cells or "precells," found in large numbers in the embryo |
| bipedalism | being able to stand and walk on two feet |
| canalization | the degree to which an element of development is dictated by the common genetic program that all humans inherit |
| chromosomes | strands of DNA that carry genes and associated proteins |
| base pairs | pairs of adenine and thymine and of guanine and cytosine that make up the "rungs" of the DNA molecule |
| gene | a segment of DNA, occupying a specific place on a chromosome |
| genotype | the underlying genetic makeup of an individual organism |
| phenotype | the observable traits and characteristics of an individual organism |
| mitosis | the process through which all cells other than gametes reproduce, in which a cell divides and each resulting cell receives a full copy of all 46 chromosomes |
| gametes | reproductive cells; sperm in males and ova (eggs) in females |
| meiosis | the process through which gametes (sperm and ova) are produced, in which each resulting gamete has half of the genetic material of the parent cell |
| alleles | different forms of the same gene occupying the same location on each of the chromosomes that make up a chromosomal pair |
| additive heredity | the process of genetic transmission that results in a phenotype that is a mixture of the mother's and father's traits |
| dominant/recessive heredity | the process of genetic transmission in which one version (allele) of a gene is dominant over another, resulting in the phenotypic expression of only the dominant allele |
| regulator genes | genes whose function is to turn other genes on or off at different points in the life cycle or in response to events in the environment. |
| mutations | copying errors in the replication of DNA that alter the proteins a gene or chromosome produces |
| microsystem | in Bronfenbrenner's ecological perspective on development, a setting in which the child interacts with others face-to-face, such as a family or classroom |
| mesosystem | In Bronfenbrenner's ecological perspective, the system of interconnected microsystems |
| exosystem | In Bronfenbrenner's ecological perspective on development, the layer of the context that includes the larger settings that children know only in part, such as the neighborhood and settings in which children themselves do not participate, such as work. |
| macrosystem | In Bronfenbrenner's ecological perspective on development, the layer of the context that includes the larger forces that define a society at a particular point in time - culture, politics, economics, mass media, historical events. |
| familism | placing a high value on the interests of the family rather than the individual |
| gene expression | the process through which genes influence the production of specific proteins, which in turn influence the phenotype |
| cross-fostering | in animal research, the process of removing an offspring from its biological parents and having it raised by other adults, often with different attributes than the biological parents |
| gene-environment interaction | the process through which genotypes produce different phenotypes in different contexts |
| reaction range | an array of phenotypic possibilities that a genotype has the potential to produce as a result of the context in which the organism develops |
| passive gene-environment correlations | similarity between the results of genetic and environmental influences due to the fact that the same parents provide both genes and environments for their children. |
| evocative gene-environment correlations | similarity between the results of genetic and environmental influences due to the fact that genotypically different individuals elicit different responses from their environments |
| active gene-environment correlations | similarity between the results of genetic and environmental influences due to the fact that children select contexts that they find rewarding, and that therefore tend to maintain or strengthen their genetically influenced traits |
| niche-picking | the process through which individuals select the environments in which they spend time |
| gestation | the period from conception to birth that lasts about 280 days, counting from the mother's last menstrual period |
| ovum | female sex cell; girls are born with about 2 million ova |
| ovulation | an event that occurs about every 28 days for women, in which a follicle in one of the ovaries ruptures, releasing a mature ovum to begin its 4-5 day journey down a fallopian tube toward the uterus |
| fertilization | insemination of an ovum by a sperm |
| zygote | the new cell created when the sperm and egg fuse |
| placenta | the support system that - via the umbilical cord - provides food and oxygen to the developing child and carries waste products away |
| implantation | on reaching the uterus, the zygote embeds in the uterus's nutrient-rich lining (endometrium) |
| infertility | failure to conceive a child after 12 months of sexual intercourse without birth control |
| fertility drugs | hormone-based agents that enhance ovarian activity |
| artificial insemination | the most common treatment for male infertility, which involves inserting sperm directly into the woman's uterus with a syringe |
| in vitro fertilization (IVF) | the best-known and most common advanced reproductive technology procedure in which the woman takes fertility drugs so that her body releases more than one egg, her ova are surgically extracted at ovulation, and then are mixed with her partner's sperm |
| surrogate mother | the woman who is impregnated with a male's sperm through artificial insemination, or with the couple's embryo, conceived in vitro |
| ectoderm | the outer layer of an embryo's cells that will become fetal skin, nerves, and sense organs |
| mesoderm | the middle layer of an embryo's cells that will become muscles, bones, the circulatory system and some organs |
| endoderm | the inner layer of an embryo's cells that will become the digestive system, lungs, urinary tract and glands |
| amniotic sac | a protective membrane filled with warm liquid that cushions the embryo |
| neurogenesis | the production of neurons or nerve cells |
| quickening | the first fetal movements the mother can feel |
| temperament | a child's emotional and behavioral predispositions |
| Turner's syndrome | A condition in which the embryo's cells have only one X chromosome |
| ultrasound imaging | a technology that provides a living picture of prenatal development |
| multifactoral disorders | disorders that result from interactions among multiple genes and between genes and the environment |
| genetic counseling | a profession designed to help couples understand how heredity might affect their child |
| karyotype | a picture of the individual's chromosomes |
| preimplantation genetic diagnosis | a screening technique that involves removing cells from a test-tube embryo to determine if the cell contains genes linked to fatal childhood disorders |
| amniocentesis | a prenatal test in which, using ultrasound as a guide, the doctor inserts a thin needle through the woman's abdomen into the uterus to withdraw amniotic fluid that contains skin cells from the fetus |
| chorionic villi sampling | a fetal test that involves removal of a small piece of the villi, extensions that attach the amniotic sac to the wall of the uterus. |
| spina bifida | a developmental condition in which the spinal cord does not close completely |
| anencephaly | a developmental condition in which part of the brain does not develop |
| teratogen | any environmental substance that can have a negative impact on fetal development and possibly result in birth defects or even death |
| rubella | German measles, a disease that can be devastating for the fetus if the mother contracts it during the first 3 months of pregnancy |
| HIV | Human immunodeficiency virus that causes AIDS |
| AIDS | Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome |
| fetal alcohol syndrome | a pattern of disabilities found in babies and children of mothers who consumed alcohol during pregnancy |
| fetal alcohol effects | fetal deformities that are the result of significant (but not chronic) exposure to alchohol |
| sudden infant death syndrome | unexplained death, usually during the night, of an infant under 1 year old |
| sensitive period | a time in development during which the organism is especially vulnerable to experience |
| sleeper effect | an outcome that is displaced in time from a cause |
| oxytocin | a maternal pituitary gland hormone that triggers uterine contractions |
| anoxia | cutoff of the supply of oxygen through the umbilical cord before the baby can breathe independently |
| preterm | babies born before the 37th week of pregnancy |
| low birth weight | babies born weighing less than 5 1/2 pounds |
| respiratory distress syndrome | a condition common to preterm babies whose lungs do not produce enough surfactant that helps carry oxygen into and carbon dioxide out of the lungs |
| Apgar test | a delivery room test that assesses a newborn with a score of 0, 1 or 2 on each of five scales: Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, and Respiration |
| Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale | a test for newborns that uses reflexes and social interaction to assess their overall well-being, including motor capabilities, state changes, attention, and central nervous system stability |
| directionality | a principle of development that refers to how body proportions change |
| cephalocaudal | development advances from head to tail |
| proximodistal | development progresses from the center of the body outward |
| independence of systems | a principle of development that asserts that different parts of the body develop along different timetables |
| norms | average outcomes on a characteristic |
| individual differences | the variations among individuals on a characteristic |
| central nervous system | the division of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord, that processes information and directs behavior |
| subcortical structures | brain components that control state of arousal |
| limbic system | the part of the nervous system that manages emotions |
| cortex | thin layers of outer tissue that cover the brain |
| association areas | the parts of the brain concerned wiht awareness, attention, memory, and the integration of information |
| hemispheres | the two halves of the brain |
| corpus callosum | the connection between the two halves or hemispheres of the brain |
| visual cortex | the part of the brain that regulates sight |
| auditory cortex | the part of the brain that monitors hearing |
| sensorimotor cortex | the part of the brain concerned with touch |
| motor cortex | the part of the brain that controls voluntary movement |
| frontal cortex | the brain's command center responsible for thinking, planning, initiative, impulse control, and creativity |
| Wenicke's area | the region on the left side of the brain dedicated to language of speech comprehension |
| Broca's area | the region on the left side of the brain dedicated to language or speech production |
| neurons | cells that carry information across the body and brain |
| cell body | the part of the cell that contains the nucleus and biochemical mechanisms to keep the cell alive and determine whether the cell will fire |
| dendrites | branched extensions of a neuron that act like antennas that pick up signals from other neurons |
| axon | the part of the cell that carries signals away from the cell body toward other neurons. At their tips, axons divide into many axon terminals. |
| synapse | the connection between one neuron's axon and another neuron's dendrite |
| neurotransmitters | electrochemicals through which neurons intercommunicate |
| action potential | an electrical charge inside the neuron |
| synaptogenesis | the development of connections between neurons through the grown of axons and dendrites |
| synaptic pruning | the process of elimination of unused and unnecessary synapses |
| plasticity | the capacity of the brain to be modified by experience |
| myelinization | the process through which cell axons become sheathed in myelin |
| myelin | the white fatty tissue that encases cell axons |
| cerebellum | the part of the brain associated with balance and control of body movements |
| multiple sclerosis | a disease in which the autoimmune system strips neurons of myelin, leading to loss of motor control |
| microelectrode recording | a technique used to measure the activity of individual cells |
| electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings | measurements acquired with sensors at the scalp that show electrical activity of masses of individual cells |
| event-related potentials (ERPs) | specific patterns of brain activity evoked by a specific stimulus |
| experience-expectant processes | prewired processes in the brain |
| experience-dependent processes | brain processes that involve the active formation of new synaptic connections in response to the individual's unique experience |
| modifiability | a principle of development that asserts that, although cells are predestined for specific functions, their function can be changed |
| sensitive periods | times in development when the organism is especially open to environmental influence |
| compensation | a kind of plasticity in which cells substitute for others, permitting recovery of function after loss or damage |
| autonomic nervous system | the division of the nervous system that regulates many body activities without our voluntary control, such as breathing, blood flow, digestion |
| cycle | moving in an identifiable and predictable rhythm |
| reflexes | simple, involuntary responses to certain stimuli that have (or had) adaptive significance |
| dynamic systems theory | a theory that asserts that change in one area of development impacts others |
| autism spectrum disorder | a disorder characterized by difficult in expressing needs and inability to socialize |
| infant-directed speech | a special speech register reserved for babies that simplifies normal adult-directed speech in many ways |
| multimodal perceptions | the perception of information about objects and events in the world that stimulates many senses at once |
| habituation | the process in which a baby compares each new stimulus with a developing memory of the stimulus based on previous exposures, thus learning about the stimulus |
| novelty responsiveness | following habituation, the process in which a baby looks more at a new stimulus than at a familiar one |
| adaptation | the process whereby knowledge is altered by experience. Adaptation involves two complementary process: assimilation and accommodation |
| assimilation | the process by which information can be incorporated according to what the infant already knows. Assimilation allows the infant to use existing understanding to make sense of the world. |
| accommodation | the process by which the infant changes to reach new understanding; that is, the modification of existing understanding to make it apply to a new situation. Accommodation allows the infant to understand reality better and better. |
| sensorimotor period | a developmental time, consisting of a six-stage sequence, when thinking consists of coordinating sensory information with motor activity |
| object permanence | the understanding that an object continues to exist even when it cannot be sensed |
| mental representation | the ability to hold in the mind an image of objects (and people) that are not physically present |
| categorization | a process that involves grouping separate items into a set according to some rule |
| infantile amnesia | the adult recollection of almost nothing of events that took place before the age of 3 or 4 |
| deferred imitation | reproducing a series of actions seen at an earlier time |
| exploratory play | children's play in which activities are tied to the tangible properties of objects |
| symbolic play | children's play that enacts activities performed by the self, others, and objects in pretend or make-believe scenarios |
| validity | the degree to which a test measures what it was designed to measure |
| predictive validity | when performance at one time relates meaningfully to performance at a later time |
| scaffolding | providing learning opportunities, materials, hints, and clues when a child has difficulty with a task |
| ethnotheories | parents' belief systems that motivate them to behave in the ways they do |
| phonology | sounds in language that are produced and perceived |
| semantics | the meaning of words and sentences, or the content of speech. |
| syntax | the rules that define the ways in which words and phrases are arranged to ensure correct and meaningful communication. Also called grammar. |
| comprehension | understanding language |
| production | speaking the language |
| morphemes | units of meaning in a language |
| referential | a linguistic style hallmarked by vocabularies that include a high proportion of nous and speech that provides information and refers to things in the environment |
| expressive | a linguistic style hallmarked by early vocabularies that have relatively more verbs and speech that uses social routines to communicate feelings and desires |
| infant-directed speech | a special speech register reserved for babies that simplifies normal adult-directed speech in many ways |
| holophrase | a single word that stands in for a phrase and has different meanings depending on the context |
| induction | the process of using a limited set of examples to draw conclusions that permit inferences about new cases |
| fast mapping | a phenomenon that refers to how easily children pick up words they have heard only a few times |
| whole object assumption | a concept that refers to children's belief that a novel label refers to the "whole object" and not to its parts, substance, or other properties |
| mutual exclusivity | a concept that refers to an infant's assumption that any give object has only one name) |
| socioeconomic status (SES) | the education, occupation, and income of householders |
| universal grammar | Chomsky's term for aspects of syntax that are thought to be innate and built into every infant's brain |
| Broca's area | the region on the left side of the brain dedicated to language or speech production |
| Wernicke's area | the region on the left side of the brain dedicated to language or speech comprehension |
| emotions | feelings that give strong and informative cues about one's current state |
| temperament | the biologically based source of individual differences in behavioral functioning |
| attachments | infants' specific lasting, social relationships with others, especially parents and caregivers |
| emotional expression | the communication of feelings to others through facial expressions, gestures, and vocalizations |
| emotional understanding | the interpretation (reading) of the emotional expression of others |
| primary emotions | the feelings of joy, surprise, sadness, anger, fear and shyness that appear to be deeply rooted in human biology and develop early in life |
| secondary emotions | the feelings of embarrassment, pride, guilt, shame, and envy that emerge in the second and third years of life |
| mirror neurons | cells in the brain that are activated both when we do something and when we see someone else do the same thing |
| social referencing | the tendency to use others' emotional expressions to interpret uncertain or ambiguous events |
| positive affectitivy | a dimension of temperament that reflects the extent to which a person feels enthusiastic and alert (eg, cheerful, outgoing, etc.) |
| negative affectivity | a dimension of temperament that reflects the extent to which a person feels distressed (sad, angry) |
| inhibited children | children who are characteristically shy, fearful and timid |
| difficult children | children who are easily irritated and hard to soothe |
| goodness of fit | a concept that refers to a match of the child's temperament and the demands of the environment. |
| environment of evolutionary adaptedness | the context in which our species evolved |
| separation protest | a signal, characterized by crying, that is aimed at making attachment figures return |
| sensitive period | a time in development during which the organism is especially vulnerable to experience |
| stranger wariness | the hesitancy that infants show at around 10 months when they are approached by unfamiliar people |
| Strange Situation | an experimental paradigm that reveals security of attachment |
| reciprocity | a lesson in social interaction in which partners take turns acting and reacting to the other's behavior |
| effactance | a lesson in social interaction that involves learning that one's behavior can affect the behavior of others in a consistent and predictable fashion |
| trust | a lesson in social interaction that involves learning that another person can be counted on to respond when signaled |
| secure base | the trustworthy place infants count on for protection and accessibility when needed as they explore and interact with other people |
| internal working models | children's thoughts about their caregivers and themselves with respect to their caregivers constitute internal working models of attachment |
| contact comfort | the gratification derived from touch |
| normative development | a pattern of development that is typical, or average |
| individual differences | the variation among individuals on a characteristic |
| norms | average outcomes rather than actual or even ideal ones |
| body mass index (BMI) | BMI is calculated by dividing weight by height squared |
| obesity | determined by body mass index. Children in the 95th percentile or higher are considered obese. Children in the 85th to 94th percentile are considered overweight |
| gross motor skills | abilities required to control the large movements of the arms, legs and feet, or the whole body, such as running, jumping, climbing and throwing |
| fine motor skills | abilities required to control smaller movements of the hand and fingers, such as picking up small objects and tying one's shoes |
| kwashiorkor | a form of malnutrition in which individuals have an adequate intake of calories, but an inadequate intake of protein |
| marasmus | a form of malnutrition in which individuals are not receiving enough protein or enough calories |
| cortisol | a hormone secreted when individuals are exposed to stress |
| reversibility | a logical operation that requires an understanding that relations can be returned to their original state by reversing operations - if nothing has been added or taken away |
| pretend play | make-believe play in which common objects are often used to symbolize other objects |
| classification | the ability to divide or sort objects into different sets and subsets, and to consider their interrelationships |
| conservation | the understanding that some characteristics of objects (including volume, mass, and number) do not change despite changes in form or appearance when nothing is added or taken away |
| egocentrism | in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, egocentrism refers to teh child's inability to see other people's viewpoints |
| animism | belief that inanimate objects are alive and have thoughts, feelings, and motives like humans |
| theory of mind | the ability to attribute mental states - beliefs, intents, desires, knowledge - to oneself and others and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, and intentions that are different from one's own |
| zone of proximal development | the gap between what a child can do alone and what a child can do with assistance |
| scaffolding | providing learning opportunities, materials, hints, and clues when a child has difficulty with a task |
| guided participation | the varied ways children learn their society's values and practices through participation in family and community activities |
| continuous performance task | a laboratory task designed to assess attentiveness and impulsivity by pushing a button when a specific object appears on the computer screen |
| impulsivity | as measured by the continuous performance task, how often a child incorrectly pushes a button designating that an object is on the screen |
| sensory memory | a subconscious process of picking up sensory information - sights, sounds, smells, touch - from the environment |
| working memory | conscious, short-term representation of what a person is actively thinking about at a given time |
| long-term memory | the collection of information that is mentally encoded and stored, it is believed to have potentially unlimited capacity and no time limits |
| generic memory | a script or general outline of how familiar activities occur based on experience |
| episodic memory | recall of a particular incident that took place at a specific time and place |
| autobiographical memory | recall of individual episodes that are personally meaningful, which begins at about age 4 and may last for decades |
| telegraphic speech | simple, meaningful two-word utterances spoken by young children |
| overregulation | when children mistakenly apply regular grammatical rules to irregular cases |
| structural quality | characteristics of child-care settings, such as group size, child/adult ratios, and caregiver education and training |
| process quality | an assessment of children's interactions and experiences in child-care settings. Higher process quality is characterized by more sensitive and caring interactions with adults, rich conversations, and stimulating materials and activities |
| socialization | the process of developing cultural values and rules for behavior |
| self-conception | a cognitive construction that reflects the child's level of mental development and a social construction that reflects the child's interactions and experiences with other people |
| self-esteem | a global assessment of self-worth |
| initiative vs. guilt | the third stage in Erikson's theory of psychosocial development during which mastery of new skills becomes a primary goal |
| gender identity | a person's sense of self as male or female |
| gender constancy | the concept that gender is permanent and immutable |
| gender socialization | social norms conveyed to children that concern characteristics associated with being male of female |
| rough-and-tumble play | physically vigorous behaviors such as chasing, jumping, and play fighting that are accompanied by shared smiles and laughter |
| gender schema | a mental network of beliefs and expectation about males versus females |
| self-conscious emotion | an emotion that involves evaluation of oneself, such as embarrassment or pride |
| emotional intelligence | the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and to use that information to guide thinking and action |
| emotional regulation | the ability to inhibit, enhance, maintain, and modulate emotional arousal to accomplish a goal |
| effortful control | the ability to withhold a dominant response in order to make a nondominant response, to engage in planning, and to regulate reactive tendencies |
| externalizing problems | psychosocial problems that are manifested in outward symptoms, such as aggression or noncompliance |
| prosocial behavior | a voluntary action intended to benefit another person |
| conscience | an internalized sense of right and wrong that invokes positive feelings about doing the right thing, and negative feelings about doing something wrong |
| empathy | understanding and sharing another person's feelings |
| aggression | actions that are intended to harm or injure another person |
| physical aggression | behaviors such as hitting, pushing, and biting that are intended to harm another |
| verbal aggression | aggressive behavior such as threats and name calling |
| relational aggression | aggressive behavior designed to lower another's self-esteem, social standing, or both |
| reactive aggression | aggressive behavior that is a defensive response to provocation |
| instrumental aggression | aggressive behavior designed to achieve a goal for oneself |
| hostile aggression | aggressive behavior that intends harm as its primary goal, in contrast to instrumental aggression that has the primary goal of achieving some end or controlling resources |
| agonism | behaviors by very young children that may unintentionally hurt or harm another person |
| developmental trajectory | a pattern of changes in an individual over a relatively long period of time |
| internalizing problems | psychosocial problems that are manifested in inward symptoms, such as depression or anxiety |
| authoritative parenting | parenting style characterized by high warmth and high control |
| authoritarian parenting | parenting style characterized by low warmth and high control |
| permissive parenting | parenting style characterized by high warmth and low control, also known as "indulgent" parenting |
| disengaged parenting | parenting style characterized by low warmth and low control |
| peers | age-mates who are equals in terms of skills and maturity |
| simple pretend play | fantasy play behavior in which children watch or mimic each other but do not collaborate in any organized way |
| associative pretend play | social fantasy play in which children create a story or script with a series of actions in a meaningful sequence |
| cooperative pretend play | social fantasy play in which children develop a script and play reciprocal roles (eg, mother and baby) |
| homophily | the tendency of individuals to associate and bond with others who are similar or "like" themselves |
| attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) | a condition in which children have difficulty getting organized, focusing on a task, or thinking before acting |
| asthma | a chronic respiratory condition that causes sudden attacks of wheezing, coughing, and shortness of breath |
| allergy | an exaggerated immune response or reaction to substances that are generally not harmful |
| Type 1 diabetes | a type of diabetes where the immune system destroys the beta cells in the pancreas so that the pancreas is unable to produce insulin |
| Type 2 diabetes | a type of diabetes in which the body does not use insulin efficiently. Type 2 diabetes is brought on by a combination of genes, overweight, and inactivity |
| concrete operations | the third stage of cognitive development in Piaget's theory when mental activities become more logical with respect to actual objects and materials |
| class inclusion | a logical operation that recognizes that a class or group can be part of a larger group |
| seriation | the ability to arrange items in a sequenced order according to particular properties |
| transitive inference | a logical operation that builds on an understanding of seriation. It requires that two relations are combined to derive a third relation |
| horizontal decalage | differences in performance on conceptually related Piagetian tasks. For example, children typically understand conservation of mass before they understand conservation of number |
| digit span task | a research procedure in which people are asked to repeat in order a series of rapidly presented items |
| verbatim memory | detailed memories of specific events |
| gist memory | a generalized, rather than specific, memory of common occurrences |
| false memory | a memory that is a distortion of an actual experience, or a confabulation of an imagined one |
| Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) procedure | an experimental task that demonstrates the creation of false memories; participants often recollect or recall words that they have not heard because they make associations based on conceptual commonalities |
| microgenetic analysis | a research strategy that involves frequent, detailed observations of behavior |
| memory strategy | mental or behavioral activities that can improve recall or recognition of material |
| multiple intelligences | Gardner's theory that intelligence has at least eight distinct forms: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic |
| triarchic theory of successful intelligence | Sternberg's theory that intelligence is composed of three broad components: analytical abilities, creative abilities, and practical abilities |
| giftedness | indicated by extraordinary creativity or performance in music, sports, or art, as well as traditional academic subjects |
| Down syndrome | a condition in which children have a third copy of chromosome 21, one of the most common genetic causes of mental retardation |
| fragile X syndrome | a condition in which children have a change in a single gene on the X chromosome, one of the most common genetic causes of mental retardation |
| root words | vocabulary that must be learned, in contrast to derived and compound words that are built on root words |
| code switching | changing speech to reflect the audience and situation |
| decoding | applying knowledge of letter-sound relationships to read written words |
| comprehension | understanding what is read or said |
| phonics | emphasizes decoding in which readers match the printed alphabet to spoken sounds |
| whole language | emphasizes comprehension and context, and inferring what words are from context |
| dyslexia | a learning disability characterized by difficulties with word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding skills |
| inclusion | placement of children with special needs in regular classrooms |
| English Language Learner | child for whom English is a new language |
| achievement gap | an observed disparity on educational measures between the performance of groups of students, especially social classes and ethnic disparities |
| No Child Left Behind (NCLB) | a federal law that holds schools accountable for student performance and requires that states meet specific goals as measured by standardized achievement tests |
| high stakes test | a test that results in serious sanctions if performance standards are not met |
| industry versus inferiority | Erikson's fourth stage of psychosocial development in which children develop a view of themselves as industrious versus inferior. Striving for recognition for their accomplishments, children develop skills and perform tasks that society values |
| instrumentality | a personality trait that is characterized by a focus on action and accomplishments |
| expressivity | a personality trait that is marked by a "caring" orientation, a focus on communication, collaboration, and conciliation |
| meta-analysis | a statistical technique that combines the findings of multiple studies, taking into account the number of children in each of the individual studies and the magnitude of the effect reported in each one |
| preconventional moral reasoning | in Kohlberg's theory, reasoning that focuses on the rewards and punishments associated with different courses of action, not societal standards |
| conventional moral reasoning | In Kohlberg's theory, reasoning that focuses on receiving the approval of others and maintaining the social order |
| postconventional moral reasoning | In Kohlberg's theory, reasoning guided by principles such as justice, fairness, and sanctity of life |
| hedonistic reasoning | moral reasoning that focuses on one's own wishes and needs |
| altruism | helping behaviors that are motivated by assistance as an end in itself, without expectation of reward or recognition |
| postmodern family | a term that describes the variation in modern-day families - to parents and single parents, married and unmarried couples, and multi-generational households |
| transactional process | an interplay between the child and his or her caretaking encironment in which each mutually influence the other over time |
| peer group status | an indication of children's relative standing in the peer group as measured by peer nominations of acceptance and rejection |
| deviancy training | a process in which clique members praise, encourage, model and reward one another for aggression or anti-social behaviors |
| bullying | aggression by an individual that is repeatedly directed toward particular peers |
| self-care | refers to children caring for themslves without adult supervision |
| media multitasking | t |
| digital divide | the gap between those families that have access to computers and related materials in their homes and those that do not |
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