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Psych 101
Exam 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Sensation | -The process by which our nervous system receives and represents stimuli from the environment -Eyes, ears and other sensory receptors absorb raw physical energy -Raw energy transformed into neural signals which are sent to the brain |
| Perception | the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events |
| Evaluation of Sensation | -is subjective and thus cannot be measured using objective instruments -Evaluated using psychophysics |
| Absolute threshold | -The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time -Can vary with age |
| Signal Detection Theory | -Understand why pp respond differently to the same stimuli and why the same pp’s reaction changes in different circumstances -detecting a stimulus is jointly determined by the signal and the subject’s criterion (bias) |
| Just Noticeable Difference (JND) | -minimum difference a person can detect between any 2 stimuli half the time -Weber’s law: JND a function of proportions |
| Subliminal messages | -words or pictures not consciously perceived but supposedly influence people’s judgments, attitudes, and behaviors |
| Blueish colors | -short wavelength, high frequency |
| Reddish colors | -long wavelength, low frequency |
| High amplitude | bright colors |
| Low amplitutde | dull colors |
| Cornea | Light enters through the cornea, which protects the eye and bends light to provide focus |
| vision | -When we see light, it is actually pulses of electromagnetic energy hitting our eyes -Length of a light wave (wavelength) determines its perceived color |
| pupil | Then it passes through pupil: small adjustable opening |
| iris | Pupil’s size is regulated by the iris, a colored muscle surrounding the pupil |
| lens | Light continues through the lens which fine-tunes the focusing of the light |
| retina | Images projected upside down on the Retina: light-sensitive surface on which the rays focus -contains rods and cones |
| acuity | the sharpness of vision |
| Nearsightedness | nearby objects are seen more clearly - distant objects focus in front of retina |
| Farsightedness | faraway objects are seen more clearly - the image of near objects is focused behind retina |
| Rods | -sensitive to light -Concentrated at the outer edge of the retina -Share bipolar cells with other rods = combined msg -Not good a precise information -Perceived black & white -Sensitive in dim light |
| Cones | -sensitive to color -Clustered in the fovea -Direct connection to cortex via bipolar cell -Better at precise information -Perceive color -Ineffectual in dim light |
| Vision compared to other senses | Vision dominates the other senses: -100 million receptors per retina -30 brain areas, 20% of brain -10 billion cortical neurons |
| Visual Perception Process | 1.)Visual info sent to brain 2.)Constructed into component features 3.)Composed into meaningful perceived image 4.)Compared with previously stored images and recognized |
| Sound | -Sound travels in waves as a vibration -The movement jolts the surrounding molecules of air, and these collide with other air molecules -Sound travels through air at 750 mph |
| High pitched sounds | short wavelength, high frequency |
| low pitched sounds | long wavelength, low frequency |
| high amplitude | loud sounds |
| short amplitude | soft sounds |
| Pathway of sound | -Sound waves collected in outer ear -Funneled through the auditory canal to the eardrum -Ear drum vibrates bones in middle ear -These vibrations cause hair cell movements which send neural messages to the auditory cortex |
| Sound location | -Our auditory system detects small differences between right and left ear, allowing us to locate sound -Measures just noticeable difference |
| Conduction hearing loss | caused by damage to the mechanical system of the ear |
| Sensorineural hearing loss | -nerve deafness -caused by damage to hair cell receptors or auditory nerves -Most often caused by aging or prolonged exposure to noise -Digital hearing aids can help by amplifying vibrations |
| sensory compensation | People who lose one channel of sensation seem to compensate with a slight enhancement of other sensory abilities |
| synthesia | -“joining the senses”: some individuals experience sensory crossovers -PET scans reveal that when individuals with synesthesia are blindfolded and listen to words, their visual cortex is activated |
| Perception | We selectively attend to, and process, a limited number of information taken in through sensation and block out all other info |
| Cocktail party effect | ability to attend to only one voice among many |
| Perceptual organization | To transform sensory information into meaningful perceptions, we must organize it |
| Visual Capture | tendency for vision to dominate the other senses |
| Gestalt | -tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes -The whole may exceed the sum if its parts |
| Figure and Ground | -organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground) |
| proximity | -group nearby figures together |
| Similarity | -group figures that are similar |
| continuity | -perceive continuous patterns |
| connectedness | -spots, lines, and areas are seen as unit when connected |
| closure | -fill in gaps |
| Depth perception | -A function of our ability to see things in three dimensions which enables us to estimate their distance from us. -Acquired knowledge |
| Binocular cues | -depth cues that depend on retinal disparity (both eyes) |
| Mononcular cues | -depth cues that are available to each eye alone. |
| Relative height | -objects higher in field of vision are perceived as farther away |
| Relative size | -If two objects are assumed to be the same size, the one that is smaller is perceived as being farther away |
| Interposition | -if an object blocks our view of another, its perceived as being closer |
| Linear perspective | -parallel lines that appear to converge convey distance. The more they converge, the greater the distance |
| Light & Shadow | -light objects appear closer whereas dinner objects appear farther away. Shading also provides information about light source |
| Perceptual consistency | -Ability to recognize objects as being the same despite changes in size, shape and brightness |
| Shape consistency | -understanding that an object may have a difference image depending upon the angle its viewed |
| Size consistency | -perceive objects as having a consistent size even when our distance from them changes -Reciprocal relationship btw size and distance |
| color consistency | -Our perception of color depends on more than wavelength information -depends on “context” -Allows us to perceive color as a function of light relative to surrounding objects -When context changes, our perception of color changes |
| Restored vision | -What happens when someone is born blind, but gain sight later in life? -Patients could distinguish figure from group and interpret colors -But, they couldn’t recognize by sight objects they had learned by touch |
| Perceptual Set | -a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another -Our experiences, assumptions, and expectations influence our perceptions |
| Parapsychology | -the study of paranormal phenomena |
| Extrasensory Perception | -controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input |
| Telepathy | -mind to mind communication; one person sending thoughts to another |
| Clairvoyance | -perceiving remote events (e.g., sensing your house is on fire) |
| Precognition | -perceiving future events |
| Learning | -a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience -Habituation is the simplest form of learning. |
| Associative learning | -learning that certain events occur together -conditioning |
| conditioning | -process of leaning associations |
| Behaviorism | -psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes |
| CS (conditioned stimulus) | -neutral stimulus (bell) that evokes a conditioned response |
| CR (conditioned response) | -a learned response (salivation) to a conditioned stimulus |
| Classical conditioning | -learning associations and to anticipate events. -When studying salivation in dogs, noticed that dogs would begin to salivate before the food was actually put in their mouths |
| UCR (unconditioned response) | -an unlearned response (salivation) |
| UCS (unconditioned stimulus) | -a stimulus (food) that triggers UCR |
| CS (conditioned stimulus) | -neutral stimulus (bell) that evokes a conditioned response |
| CR (conditioned response) | -a learned response (salivation) to a conditioned stimulus |
| Four principles of conditioning | -acquisition -generalization -discrimination -extinction |
| Acquisition | -initial stage in associating a neutral stimulus with an US |
| Generalization | -the CR can occur to stimuli that are similar to the CS |
| Discrimination | -the CR won’t occur for ALL stimuli that are remotely similar to the CS |
| Extinction | -When pairing of CS and US stops, the conditioned response becomes weaker until it ceases. |
| John Watson | -Founded behaviorism in reaction to introspection = wanted to make psychology a testable science -Applied Pavlov’s classical conditioning theory to ‘Little Albert’, an 11 month old boy |
| Systematic desensitization | -Watson Used -repeated pairing of CS w/out the UCS can be used to extinguish classically conditioned responses -Little Peter and the rabbit (change in personality) -Treatment for phobias |
| Pavlov’s contributions | -Most organisms can learn through classical conditioning -The process of learning can be studied objectively |
| Modern applications of conditioning | -Drug counselors advise former addicts to keep away from places that they associate with previous highs -Alcoholics sometimes are conditioned with aversion therapy -Patients with phobias taking small steps to overcome them |
| The Biology of Conditioning | -It’s easier to learn to fear snakes and spiders than to fear flowers -Natural selection favors traits that aid survival (i.e. are ecologically relevant) |
| Classical conditioning | -organisms forms new associations between an already held automatic response and a new stimuli -Doesn’t control outcomes |
| Operant conditioning | -organism forms associations between its own behavior and its consequences -Behavior is strengthened by a reinforcer or diminished by a punisher -Based on Thorndike’s law of effect: rewarded behavior is likely to recur Organism controls outcomes |
| B.F Skinner | -Believed that environmental consequences control all types of behavior = deterministic -No room for internal components or personality structures -Only groups of responses to the environment -Developed the principle of “operant conditioning” |
| Skinner Box | -Controlled environments that gradually helped shape animal behaviors using operant conditioning -E.g. pigeon/rat pressed lever to receive pellet |
| Positive reinforcer | -strengthens response through presentation of a positive stimulus (food after bar press) |
| Negative reinforcer | -strengthens response through removal of an aversive stimulus (electric shock) |
| Punishment | -negative even that follows undesired behavior that decreases the likelihood this response |
| Punishment vs. reinforcement | -Both +/- reinforcers STRENGTHEN response, but punishment only DECREASES it |
| drawbacks associated with punishment with children | 1) Behavior is suppressed, not forgotten 2) Punishment teaches discrimination 3) Punishment can teach fear 4) Physical punishment may increase aggressiveness by modeling aggression |
| Operant conditioning Today | -Clinical purposes: biofeedback -Employees reinforced with cash, time off, or vacations improved in their work -Teachers: gold stars, toys, recess time… -Training animals |
| Intrinsic motivation | -when behavior is engaged because it is seen as enjoyable |
| Extrinsic motivation | -when a behavior is engaged because of an external reward/pressure |
| Over justification Effect | -People overestimate the degree to which behavior is caused by extrinsic rewards and underestimate degree it is caused by intrinsic motivation -Extrinsic rewards decreases intrinsic motivations -Task-contingent vs. performance contingent rewards |
| Observational Learning | -Learning by observing and modeling the behavior of others -Presence of mirror neurons in frontal lobe next to motor cortex Social learning/modeling -Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment |
| Observational learning/modeling increases | -If the model is the same sex and behaves in a gender-role congruent way -If there is a pos. relationship between the observer & model -If the consequences of the model’s behavior are positive rather than negative -If the model is in a position of powe |
| Memory | -The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information -Memories are personally constructed Events with more personal meaning are more easily remembered |
| Flashbulb memory | -a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event -May be a function of emotion-triggered hormonal changes -May be accurate directly after event -But, may not be as accurate years later |
| Sensory memory | -immediate, initial recording of sensory info |
| Short-term memory | -holds a few items briefly |
| Long-term memory | -relatively permanent and limitless storehouse |
| Automatic processing | -unconscious encoding of incidental info, like space, time, frequency |
| Effortful processing | -encoding that requires attention and conscious effort -Rehearsal helps with effortful processing Recency vs. primacy effects -Often produces durable and accessible memories |
| encoding research | -Info presented in the hour before sleep is remembered extremely well -Info played audibly during sleep is registered by the ears but not remembered -We retain info better when our rehearsal is distributed over time |
| Visual encoding | -the encoding to picture images More powerful when we remember words that lend themselves to images vs. abstract low-imagery words -Imagery + semantic |
| Acoustic encoding | -the encoding of sound |
| Semantic encoding | -the encoding of meaning -Learning is easier when something has meaning |
| Chunking | -organizing items into familiar, manageable units |
| Hierarchies | -subdividing concepts from broad –> narrow helps encoding |
| Short-term memory | -stores about 7 units (plus or minus 2) or 4 chunks |
| Long-term memory | -our storage capacity is limitless |
| Memory | -Memory does not reside in a single spot in the brain -Memory probably occurs in the synapses and their neurotransmitters and in the hippocampus |
| Long Term Potentiation | -Increased synaptic activity = more efficient neural circuits (increased sensitivity) = less neurotransmitter released |
| Storage | -Arousal can enhance our storage of events Ex: traumatic events are often vividly remembered -Weaker emotions during storage translates into weaker memories Flashbulb memories |
| Recall | -the ability to retrieve information not in conscious awareness |
| Retrieval cues | -can help you call up stored information -Cues come from associations at the time we encode a memory |
| Context effects | -when the context where you encoded something matches the context where you retrieve info, you remember it better |
| Déjà vu | -when our current situation has similar cues to an earlier experience |
| Mood-congruent memory | -when the mood of storage matches the mood of recall, we remember info better |
| Absent-mindedness | -inattention to details produces encoding failures |
| Transience | -storage decay over time |
| blocking | -inaccessibility of stored info |
| Misattribution | -confusing the source of information |
| Suggestibility | -the lingering effects of misinformation |
| Bias | -belief-colored recollections |
| Retrieval failure | -Lack of relevant cues -Tip of the tongue phenomenon |
| Proactive interference | -learning for earlier information can interfere with learning for later info |
| Retroactive interference | -Learning new info may take the place of old info -Info learned in the hour before sleep is protected from retroactive interference = not likely to learn anything new |
| Motivated forgetting | -remembering things differently than actually happened |
| Motivated cognition | -want to remember things that portray self in a more positive light |
| Repression | -defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories |
| Memory Improvement Tips | -Overlearn -Actively rehearse and think about material -Make material personally meaningful -Use mnemonic devices -Recreate the situation and mood you were in during encoding Study before sleeping or when there is no other interference Test your kno |
| Amnesia | -Partial loss of memory, typically personal experiences -Results from many kinds of brain damage, typically damage to hippocampus -Two main types: Anterograde amnesia Retrograde amnesia |
| Anterograde amnesia | -new information cannot be stored in long-term memory |
| Parts of the brain effected by amnesia | -Amnesia can also be caused by damage to the prefrontal cortex: Korsakoff’s syndrom Confabulations |
| Implicit memory | -how to do something |
| Explicit memory | -memory of facts and experiences that one can know and declare |
| Factors that influence acquisition | -Time for viewing an event, lighting conditions -Narrowed focus -Arousal & Emotions -Weapons-focus effect -Own-race bias -Familiarity |
| Own-race bias | -people are better at recognizing faces of their own race than of different races -Mock witnesses more likely to falsely accuse a person from another race |
| Misinformation effect | -Tendency for false positive information to become integrated into people’s memory of an event. |
| Maleability of memory | -Changing beliefs or memories can influence what people think or do later |
| Recovered memories | -Memories, typically of sexual abuse, that are “recovered”, often with the help of a therapist -Most academics psychologists argue against this happening |
| False memory syndrome | -people can recall a past traumatic event that is objectively false but that they believe is true -Vivid memories acquired especially if another person, such as a therapist, suggests it -Typically lack other objective findings to support claims |
| Retrival | -foils -Instructions -Format -Avoid familiarity biases |
| foils | -Should have 4 – 8 -Should look like the actual suspect -Reduce actual suspect’s distinctiveness (height, dress, etc.) |
| Instructions | -Biased – “Pick the assailant” or “Concentrate & make a choice” -Fair – “The suspect might not be here -Biased instructions – pressure to pick someone, even if unsure |
| Format | -Sequential lineups or “showups” are better -Compare each face to memory of perpetrator -Absolute judgments -Simultaneous lineups -Like multiple choice – which one best -Relative judgments |
| Avoid familiarity biases | -Familiarity-induced bias: forget where we saw a face we recall -Don’t include actual suspect in initial lineups -People don’t always remember where they saw a face |
| In the lab, participants exposed to violence more likely to: | -Shock confederates -Recognize aggressive words -Men gave more shocks after viewing violent erotica -Violent erotica and other aggression can lead to desensitization |
| media violence effects | -Short-term: increase in hostile behavior, feelings, attitudes -Long-term: repeated exposure leads to chronic hostility, desensitization to real-world violence |
| Criticisms of lab studies with violence and media: | -Exposure to violence brief and controlled -Aggression may be sanctioned or encouraged -Lack of external validity |
| Conditions likely to evoke aggressive acts: | -Realistic violence (more than clearly fictional violence) -Moral justification for violence -Identification of observer with aggressor -Arousal of observer -Rewards/punishments of aggressor |
| Violent video games | -Specific effects have been found due to the nature of the game Columbine attacks: “Doom” -Graphically violent video games increase aggressive thoughts and behavior -Video game play related to aggressive behavior and delinquency |
| Intelligence | -mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations |
| How is intelligence measured? | -Several questions about how its measured: Is intelligence a general ability or several specific abilities? Disagreement on correlates Considered a concept |
| Charles Spearman | -ONE general intelligence (g) underlies specific mental abilities -People who score high on one factor tend to score high on other factors |
| Howard Gardner | -we have independent, multiple intelligences -Gardener’s 8 intelligences: verbal spatial understanding self nature math movement understanding others music -Savant syndrome |
| Robert Sternberg | -there are three aspects of intelligence -Analytical: intelligence tests -Practical: required for everyday tasks -Creative: adapting to new situations, generating new ideas |
| Creativity | -the ability to produce ideas that are novel and valuable |
| creativity vs. intelligence | -Intelligence ≠ creativity -Score ~120 on intelligence is necessary but not sufficient for creativity -Very creative professionals don’t tend to have exceedingly high intelligence scores -Convergent vs. divergent thinking |
| Sternberg's 5 components of creativity | 1) Expertise 2) Imaginative thinking skills 3) Venturesome personality 4) Intrinsic motivation 5) Creative environment |
| Emotional intelligence | -managing and understanding emotions -Ppl who score highly on E.I. enjoy higher quality interactions with friends, are less likely to be overwhelmed by anxiety/anger, positively correlated with increased job performance. |
| components of emotional intelligence | 1) Perceive emotions 2) Understand emotions 3) Manage emotions 4) Use emotions |
| Intelligences measurements (literally) | -Small correlation of +.15 between head size and intelligence score -Larger correlation of +.33 between brain volume and intelligence score -Highly intelligent people tend to have more brain synapses, |
| how individuals think and solve problems | -Trial and error -Algorithm -Insights -Heuristics |
| Algorithm | -step-by-step procedure guaranteed to eventually produce a solution |
| Insight | -a form of problem solving in which the solution comes to mind all of a sudden |
| Heuristics | -mental shortcuts, rules of thumb -Mental shortcuts used to make quick and efficient judgments. -help us select an appropriate schema to use for processing -Often work well, but can lead to errors. |
| Type of Heuristics | 1) availability heuristic 2) representativeness heuristic 3) anchoring and adjustment heuristic 4) simulation heuristic |
| Availability heuristic | -People base judgment on the ease with which they can bring something to mind |
| Representativeness heuristic | -People classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case (schema) -Not a problem unless we ignore base rate information |
| Anchoring and adjustment heuristic | -Uses a number or value as starting point, then adjusts one’s answer away from anchor. -People don’t often adjust away from their anchor enough -Most common anchor is the self |
| The Simulation Heuristic | -How easily we can imagine something happening influences our reactions to it -E.g., bronze medalists were happier than silver medalists (Medvec et al., 1995) |
| Intelligence test | -assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others |
| Francis Galton | -1st psychologist to develop mental tests -Muscular strength, size of head, speed at reacting to signals, ability to detect slight differences between two weights, lights, and tones -Today, these measures are crude and without validity |
| Alfred Binet | -Assumed all children followed same intellectual development -Mental age: the age at which a child was performing at (at, below, or above chronological age) -Goal: to identify children that needed help |
| Lewis Terman | -Binet’s norms didn’t fit with California children -Adapted Binet’s original items, added other, established new age norms (to adults) |
| Stanford-Binet Intelligence Quotient (IQ) | -IQ = mental age/chronological age x 100 -Worked for children but not for -Current IQ represents test-taker’s ability relative to average performance of other own age -Average performance score = 100, 2/3ds of test takers fall between 85-115.adults |
| WAIS (Weschler, Adult Intelligence Test) | -Most common used intelligence test today -Overall intelligence score and separate score for verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory and processing speed. |
| types of mental abilities | -Aptitude tests -Achievement tests |
| Aptitude tests | -intended to predict your ability to learn a new skill (SAT) |
| Achievement tests | -intended to reflect what you have learned (exams) |
| In order for a test to be widely accepted, it must fulfill the following criteria | 1) Standardized 2) Reliable 3) Valid |
| Standardized | -person’s performance can be meaningfully compared to others’ |
| Reliable | -it yields dependably consistent scores -2 halves of the test -Re-testing with same test or alternate forms -Stanford-Binet, & the WAIS all have reliabilities of around .9 |
| Valid | -it measures what it is supposed to measure -Intelligence tests are expected to have a measure of predictive validity too |
| Genetic component to intelligence | -Intelligence test of identical twins reared together is virtually the same as one person taking the test twice -Intelligence tests of identical twins reared apart suggests that about 70% of intelligence is genetic |
| Polygenetic | -many genes involved, each accounting for less than 1% of the variance in intelligence -Research has identified genes important to intelligence and learning disabilities |
| Environmental component to intelligence | -Adoption enhances the intelligence scores of mistreated and neglected children. -Fraternal twins (genetically dissimilar but the same age and tend to be treated more similarly) tend to score more alike than other siblings. |
| General environmental influences | -Nutrition -Stimulating environment -Schooling -Extreme deprivation can override genetic differences |
| biases in intelligence testing | -Education, gender, race |
| Stereotype threat | -Apprehension experienced by members of a stigmatized group that their behavior may confirm a stereotype -Apprehension thought to lead to anxiety and distraction = reduced performance on task |
| Stereotype threat: Steel's Findings Men vs. Women | -Women performed worse than men on a difficult math exam only if told test showed gender differences favoring men |
| Stereotype threat: Steel's Findings Race | -Asking Black Ps to indicate their race before taking a standardized test caused them to: -get fewer items correct -answer fewer items -spend more time on questions -feel significantly more anxiety |
| Diagnostic Condition | -“genuine test of verbal abilities and limitations…” |
| Non-Diagnostic Condition | -“we are researching difficult verbal problems…” |
| Sports ability | -one’s natural athletic ability |
| Sports intelligence | -one’s ability to think strategically |
| Features of Stereotype Threat | -Can affect any group -Stereotype must be relevant to self -Threat variable across different groups and situations. -Don’t need to believe stereotype. -Trying to disprove stereotype leads to decrease in performance. |
| Irony of Stereotype Threat | -The most achievement oriented students, who were also the most skilled, motivated, and confident, were the most impaired by stereotype threat. |
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mwinston
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