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Psych 321 Physio
Terms and Concepts
| Words | Definitions |
|---|---|
| GABA | most important inhibitory neurtransmitter in the brain bind benzodiazapines, barbituates, ethanol...increase Cl- into cell producing hyperpolarization |
| Acetylcholine | binds to either nicotinic or muscarinic receptors learning, memory, sensation, mood |
| Glutamate | excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain binds to either NMDA or non-NMDA receptors caffeine increases glutamates activity in regulating heart rate... caffeine blocks adenosine which inhibits glutamate |
| Summary | Table 3.3 |
| Hippocrates | Discovered nerves |
| Aristotle | Cardiocentric view, brain cooled the heart |
| Cell Theory | 3 ventricles in brain |
| Franz Gall | localization theory, phrenology |
| Lashley | holism, learning not specific to any region of the brain |
| Law of Mass Action | amount of impairment depends on amount of brain destroyed |
| Dualism | Mind & Body are seperate, mind spiritual, controls brain |
| Da Vinci | Monistic view mind is result of brain function |
| Substance P | This neuropeptide is found throughout the brain and spinal cord, especially in pain transmission pathways, since it is believed to be the primary neurotransmitter that signals pain |
| CCK | is a neurohormone synthesized by cells in the small intestine and in the nervous system |
| a few monoamine transmitters | Serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine |
| serotonin | serotonin’s most important function appears to be sleep regulation, it is also involved in vigilance, mood regulation, appetite, and stereotyped or repetitive movements, such as response to pain, made in raphe nuclei, which are located in the midbrain |
| LSD | structurally resembles serotonin, fits into serotonin receptor sites, and is hallucinogenic. |
| Adrenergic Receptors | bind norepinephrin and epinephrin, increase in heart rate, respiration rate, sweating, and pupil dilation as part of sympathetic arousal |
| norepinephrine | produced in the locus corelleus, plays a role in mood, drive reduction, sleep, arousal, cognition, and emotions |
| dopamine | implicated in motor control, thinking, affect, hormone secretion, control of emotions, and feelings of pleasure and euphoria, D2 drugs affect dopamine receptors |
| Anandamide | binds with cannabinoid receptors, cannabinoid receptors have been found in highest concentration in the basal ganglia, cerebellum, hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and amygdala |
| THC | active ingredient in weed, THC produces a number of effects on mood, thinking, and sensory perception, Adverse side effects include feelings of depersonalization, panic attacks, and disturbances in thinking that resemble a psychosis |
| Nitric oxide | only gaseous neurotransmitter, |
| acetylcholinesterase | breaks down acetylcholine |
| dura mater, arachnoid layer, pia mater | outer, middle, and inner meninges layers |
| medulla | part of the phombencephalon, regulates life support, contains nuclei |
| pons | rhombencephalon structure, superior to medulla, all white matter...relays info |
| mesencephalon | divided into the dorsal portion, the ventral portion, and the tegmentum, which lies between the dorsal and ventral areas |
| tectum | dorsal area of mesencephalon, contains- two superior colliculi (visual) and two inferior colliculi (auditory) |
| tegmentum | contains the red nucleus, periaqueductal gray, and substantia nigra, which play a vital role in attention, pain control, emotions and sensory processing |
| ventral area of mesencephalon | tracts relaying neural information between the hindbrain and forebrain |
| reticular formation | keeps you awake, midbrain |
| prosencephalon | forebrain, thinking, creating, eating, speaking, and emotions |
| telencephalon | cerebrum is the largest structure in the brain, hippocampus, amygdala, septum, and basal ganglia are buried deep within the white matter of the cerebrum |
| limbic system | hippocampus, amygdala, and septum, together with regions in the midbrain, diencephalon, and cerebrum |
| amygdala | produce fear and escape behaviors or aggressive behavior (fight versus flight) when stimulated |
| septum | emotions and addictions, and regulation of aggressive behavior |
| basal ganglia | related to movement |
| gyrus | raised area of cerebrum |
| sulcus | fisure in cerebrum |
| orbitofrontal cortex | concerned with affective evaluation. It decodes the punishment and reward value of stimuli |
| left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex | approach behavior and positive affect |
| right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex | avoidance and withdrawel |
| insular cortex | monitors the autonomic nervous system |
| anterior cingulate | has cognitive (dorsal) and affective (ventral) conflict monitoring components |
| Stroop test | shown word green written in red, conflict produces faulty speech |
| major dopamine pathways | mesolimbic, mesocortical, and nigrostriatal systems, located in the ventral tegmental areas |
| mesolimbic | dopamine in the hippocampus, amygdala, septum, and hypothalamus |
| mesocortical pathway | projects to the prefrontal cortex |
| nigrostriatal pathway | projects from the substantia nigra to the caudate nucleus and putamen of the basal ganglia |
| Mary Jane Effects and Why | This distribution reflects marijuana’s effect on: movement (basal ganglia and cerebellum), memory and cognition (cerebellum, hippocampus, and cerebral cortex), the experience of reward (amygdala and cerebral cortex) |
| ablation | removing part of the brain |
| lessioning | damaging or disrupting part of the brain |
| Thermocautery | uses a red-hot wire to burn away the area to be lesioned, producing a neat lesion with far less bleeding than ablation |
| cryoprobe | produces lesions by freezing tiny areas of the brain |
| Gamma knife | modern subcortical lesioning techniques employ converging beams of ionizing radiation |
| Temporary lesions | injecting a potassium chloride (KCl) solution, or cooling the brain area under 25o C (but not below freezing) using a cryoprobe |
| SPECT | Single photon emission computed tomography , used to measure brain activity using photon emitting isotopes |
| EEG | electroencephalography, used to measure brain activity, event related potentials |
| MEG | magnetoencephalography, measures magnetic fields created by the brain |
| PET | Positron emission tomography, measures brain activity using radioactive isotopes |
| fMRI | functional magnetic resonance imaging, locates oxygenated hemoglobin asscociated with brain activity |
| Immunocytochemistry | uses immune system reactions to trace brain activity from one neuron to the next |
| acetylcholine(motor function) | initiates muscle contraction when released into the neuromuscular junction |
| Red muscle | high concentration of the protein myoglobin, which binds with oxygen, relies on oxygen and the process of oxidation to produce ATP |
| White muscle | does not rely on oxidation to produce ATP and quickly goes into oxygen debt during muscle contraction, White muscle is used for rapid muscle contractions that take place in short bursts |
| Alpha motor neurons | have axons with large diameters, which allows action potentials to travel rapidly to extrafusal muscle fibers |
| Gamma motor neurons | have axons with small diameters, which causes action potentials to travel more slowly to intrafusal muscle fibers |
| Extrafusal muscle fibers | long muscle fibers that run the entire length of the muscle |
| Intrafusal muscle fibers | found in muscle spindles, which are interspersed along the extrafusal muscle fibers |
| muscle spindle | sensitive to being stretched |
| Golgi tendon organs | stretch receptors in tendons, keep us form injuring ourselves |
| crossed extensor reflex | counterbalance when withdrawel reflex of other limb initiated, i.e. cat steps on tac, pics up left paw, right paw extends to carry extra weight |
| pyramidal motor system | arises from the primary motor cortex in the frontal lobe, responsible for fine motor control of skeletal muscles |
| prefrontal cortex | organize the response to sensory stimuli, especially when some stimuli need to be ignored |
| supplementary motor cortex | plays a role in organizing complex, rapid movements |
| extrapyramidal motor system | coordinate gross movements and postural adjustments, arises from many parts of the brain, including the cerebral cortex, the thalamus, the cerebellum, the basal ganglia, and the reticular formation |
| cerebellum2 | coordinate movement in response to sensory stimuli, cerebellum knows which muscles are contracted and which are relaxed before it sends out commands to motor neurons |
| basal ganglia (motor function) | subcortical nuclei, including the striatum (caudate nucleus, putamen, and nucleus accumbens), the globus pallidus, the substantia nigra, and the subthalamic nucleus, play an important role in relaying information to and from the cerebral cortex, dopamine |
| Muscular dystrophy | causes wasting of the muscle fibers, which weakens muscular contraction |
| Myasthenia gravis | movement disorder associated with the progressive degeneration of acetylcholine receptors located at neuromuscular junctions |
| apraxia | person cant organize movements into productive sequence |
| Choreas | involve more elaborate involuntary movements of the head, arms, and legs |
| Cerebral palsy | movement disorder that is caused by damage to the motor areas of the cerebrum, including the motor cortex and basal ganglia |
| Parkinson’s disease | destruction of dopamine-producing cells in the substantia nigra, glutamate hyperactive with parkinson's |
| L-dopa | dopamine precursor |
| microvilli | finger like projections replace dendrites and axons in taste receptors |
| transducers | converts one form of energy to another |
| sclera | tough white outer layer of the eye |
| cones | area centralis, fine detail, light vision |
| rods | peripheral vision, dark vision, movement, little detail |
| amacrine cells | provide feedback to bipolar and ganglion cells |
| ganglion cells | receive information from amacrine (glutamate or GABA) and bipolar cells (glutamate) in the form of neurotransmitters |
| superior colliculus (vision) | help with tracking |
| Helmholtz and Young | proposed only 3 types of receptors to see all 200 shades of color |
| Opponent-Process Theory | which proposed that three pairs of opposing colors (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white) code for color in the nervous system |
| astigmatism | surface of the cornea is irregular |
| glaucoma | When a blockage prevents drainage of the aqueous humor, intraocular pressure increases |
| myopia | eyeball is too long |
| hyperopia | eyeball is too short |
| pinna | outer ear, collects sound |
| external auditory meatus | ear canal |
| Frequency Theory | says frequency of incoming sound translated into frequency of action potentials |
| kinesthesia | ability to sense movement |
| proprioception | ability to know where a body part is located in space |
| interoception | sense arrises from internal organisms |
| Ruffini’s endings | warm receptors |
| Krause endbulbs | cold receptors |
| lemniscal pathway | relays info about pressure and stretching |
| extralemniscal pathway | relays pain and temperature info |
| glomeruli | process info about one scent |
| Anosmia | inability to smell |
| Potentiation | one stimulus causes a receptor to react more strongly to a subsequent stimulus |
| Ageusia | inability to taste |
| utricle, semicircular canals and saccule | hair cells in these sturctures tell us about head position using gravity |
| vestibular branch of the auditory nerve | nerves that control eye movement, to compensate for head movement |
| oculovestibular reflexes | Automatic eye movements made in response to head movements |
| vertigo | occurs when there is a conflict in the information coming from the vestibular system and that coming from the visual system |
| stellate cells | receive information from the thalamus and other parts of the cerebrum |
| pyramidal cells | transmit information from the cortex to other parts of the brain |
| lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) | info from the rods and cones sent here |
| V1 | primary visual cortex |
| ventral (“What”) stream | processes information about color and form |
| dorsal (“Where”) stream | processes information about motion and the location of objects in the visual field |
| V4 | color processing |
| Simple cells | respond best to a line or edge in a particular orientation |
| Complex cells | most sensitive to lines or edges with a particular orientation or to moving edges |
| Hypercomplex cells | prefer stimuli with a particular length or width in a particular orientation |
| V3 | form processing |
| V5 | located in occipital lobe near border with temporal lobe, processes information about movement |
| scotoma | blind spot |
| visual object agnosia | cannot identify or name objects, but can describe the color, motion, and details of those objects |
| prosopagnosia | damage to the right inferior temporal lobe, or bilateral damage to the inferior temporal lobes, cannot recognize faces of people who are familiar to them |
| pure alexia | can often identify individual letters, but cannot put the letters together to read them as whole words |
| Broca’s aphasia | nonfluent speech that is effortful, with long pauses inserted between short phrases, anomia (also called nominal aphasia), in which they cannot name familiar objects |
| Wernicke’s area | language comprehension |
| inferior parietal cortex | what system |
| tactile agnosia | damage to inferior cortex produces this, cant ID objects in touch |
| posterior parietal lobe | where system |
| periaqueductal gray and the periventricular gray | release pain-inhibiting neurotransmitters in the substantia gelatinosa |
| substance P | signals the presence of tissue damage and pain to the central nervous system |
| insula | role in conscious processing in taste recognition |
| Declarative memory | explicit memory, involves the conscious retention of facts and events |
| Nondeclarative memory | implicit memory, refers to the nonconscious memory for learned behaviors |
| Apraxia | person cannot organize movements into a productive sequence |
| ascending reticular activating system | produces attention |
| tegmentum | reticular formation structure responsible for orienting responses |
| Area 46 | area in the prefrontal cortex that appears to play a role in switching attention between two or more tasks |
| Petit mal epilepsy | seizures of attention, absence seizures |
| Akinetic mutism | disorder in which the affected individual is unable to make orienting responses, caused by damage to the reticular formation |
| Hyperekplexia | startle disease, is a disorder characterized by an overreactive orienting response |
| Long-term potentiation | increase in the readiness of a postsynaptic neuron to fire following repeated stimulation by the presynaptic neuron |
| nitric oxide | floats back to presynaptic neuron triggers continued release of glutamate |
| Implicit learning | acquisition of behaviors for which we have no conscious awareness |
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TSUBulldog14
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