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2000 Test 2
Psychology Test 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| developmental psychology | a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive and social change throughout the life span |
| zygote | the fertilized egg; it enters a two week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo |
| embryo | the developing organism from about two weeks after fertilization through the second month |
| fetus | the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth |
| teratogens | agents such as chemicals and viruses that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm |
| fetal alcohol syndrome | physical and cognitive abnormalities in children cause by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking |
| cognition | all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating |
| schema | a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information |
| assimilation | interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schema |
| accommodation | adapting our current understandings (schema) to incorporate new information |
| sensorimotor stage | in Piaget's theory, the stage, from birth to about two years of age, during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities |
| object permanence | the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived |
| preoperational stage | in Piaget's theory, the stage, from 2 to 6 years, during which children learn to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic |
| theory of mind | people's idea about their own and other's mental states-- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behaviors this might predict |
| concrete operational | in PIaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events |
| formal operational | in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development during which people being to think logically about abstract concepts |
| stranger anxiety | the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning at about eight months of age |
| attachment | an emotional tie with another person, shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation |
| critical point | an optimal period shorty after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development |
| imprinting | the process by which certain animals from attachments during a critical period very early in life |
| self concept | our understanding and evaluation of who we are |
| authoritarian parent style | parenting style where parents impose rules and expect obedience |
| permissive parent style | parents submit to children's demands and make few demans |
| authoritative parent style | both demanding and responsive and explain why rules are put into place |
| preconventional morality | focusing on self-interest and obeying rules to avoid punishment |
| conventional morality | caring for others while upholding laws and social rules |
| postconvetional morality | actions are “right” because they flow from people’s rights or basic ethical principles |
| identity | our sense of self; according to Erickson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrative various rules |
| social identity | the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "who am I?" |
| emerging adulthood | for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to early twenties, bridging the gap between adolescence and full adulthood |
| cross-sectional research | study where different people in different age groups are compared |
| longitudinal research | study where the same group of adults are followed throughout different time periods |
| associative learning | learning that certain events occur together; may be two stimuli or a response and its consequences |
| classical conditioning | a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events |
| learning | a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience |
| behaviorism | the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental process |
| unconditioned response | in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus such as salivation when food in in the mouth |
| unconditioned stimulus | in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically-triggers a response |
| conditioned response | in classical conditioning, the learning response to a previously neutral stimulus |
| conditioned stimulus | in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus comes to trigger a conditioned response |
| acquisition | in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response |
| extinction | the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus |
| higher-order conditioning | a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second, weaker conditioned stimulus |
| spontaneous recovery | the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response |
| generalization | the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses |
| discrimination | in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus |
| learning | a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience |
| observational learning | learning by observing others |
| modeling | the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior |
| mirror neurons | frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so |
| prosocial behavior | positive, constructive, helpful behavior |
| respondent behavior | behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus |
| operant conditioning | a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcers or diminished if followed by a punished |
| operant behavior | behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences |
| law of effect | Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely |
| operant chamber | in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a foor or water reinforcer |
| shaping | an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforces guide behavior toward close and closer approximations of the desired behavior |
| reinforcer | in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows |
| positive reinforcement | increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food |
| negative reinforcement | increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli |
| primary reinforcer | an innately reinforcing stimulus such as one that satisfies a biological need |
| conditioned reinforcer | a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer |
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