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PSYCH 100 Lecture 1
Psych as a Science, Biases, Critical Thinking, Research Methods, Heuristics, etc
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is science? | An approach to evidence; Toolbox of skills designed to prevent us from fooling ourselves; to prove ourselves wrong. |
| Scientific Attitudes- Define Communalism | Willingness to share findings with others (COMMUNity of scholars working together) |
| Scientific Attitudes- Define Disinterestedness | Scientists should try their hardest to be objective when evaluating evidence (not to be influenced by personal or financial investments in their research) |
| Biases- Define Confirmation Bias | Seeking out evidence that supports hypothoses and neglect or distort evidence that contradicts them ("seek and ye shall find") |
| Example of Confirmation Bias | Wason Selection Task (1966) - "Mother of all Biases" -OR- Snyder & Swann (1978) - Introverts vs. Extroverts -OR- Westen Et Al (2006) - Political Partisanship |
| Biases- Define Belief Perserverance | Tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them ("don't confuse me with the facts" |
| Example of Belief Perserverence | "The world is flat" -OR- "Smoking won't affect ME" -OR- Suicide Note Task |
| Define Scientific Theory | An explaination for a large number of findings in the natural world (including psychological) - Proposed model that ties them together |
| Example of Scientific Theory | Big Bang Theory |
| Define Hypothesis | Testable prediction derived from a theory needed to conduct research; must have some idea about what is going to happen and why. |
| Define Scientific Skepticism | Approach of evaluating all claims with an open mind, but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them |
| Define Pathological Skepticism | Tendency to dismiss any claims that contradict our beliefs |
| Define Oberg's Dictum | Premise that we should keep our minds open, but not so open that we believe virtually everything |
| Example of Oberg's Dictum | Wegener- Continental Drift and "Pangea" |
| Define Astrology | Pseudoscience that claims to predict peoples' personalities and futures from the precise date and time of their birth |
| Define The Role of Authority | Truth emerges not from blindly accepting the word of an established authority figure, but from the fruits of independent research. |
| Example of The Role of Authority | Cohen experiment (republicans and democrats only supporting what they're told their parties strongly endorse) |
| Six Principles of Critical Thinking- Define Critical Thinking | Set of skills for evaluating all claims in an open-minded and careful fashion |
| Six Principles of Critical Thinking- Define Extraordinary Claims | Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence- The more a claim contradicts what we already know, the more persuasive the evidence for this claim must be before we accept it. |
| Six Principles of Critical Thinking- Example of Extraordinary Claims | Alien Abductions -OR- Bigfoot |
| Six Principles of Critical Thinking- Define Falsifiability | Claims must be capable of being disproved, must only predict certain outcomes, not other (must stand decent chance of being wrong) |
| Six Principles of Critical Thinking- Example of Falsifiability | Baseball Predictors |
| Six Principles of Critical Thinking- Define Risky Prediction | Forecast that stands a good chance of being wrong, part of Falsifiability |
| Six Principles of Critical Thinking- Define Occam's Razor | If 2 hypotheses explain a phoenomenon equally well, we should generally select the simple one. |
| Six Principles of Critical Thinking- Example of Occam's Razor | Crop Circles (really a prank, but even afterwards, others were made) |
| Six Principles of Critical Thinking- Define Replicability | A finding must be capable of being duplicated by independent researchers following the same "recipe" to ensure original results weren't due to chance |
| Six Principles of Critical Thinking- Example of Replicability | ESP |
| Six Principles of Critical Thinking- Define Ruling Out Rival Hypotheses | Findings consistent with several hypotheses require additional research to eliminate these hypotheses-look at alternate expainations |
| Six Principles of Critical Thinking- Example of Ruling Out Rival Hypotheses | EMDR (Proposed treatment for anxiety disorders) |
| Six Principles of Critical Thinking- Define Correlation Isn't Causation | The fact that 2 things are associated with each other doesn't mean that one causes the other |
| Six Principles of Critical Thinking- Define 3rd Variable Problem | Case in which a 3rd variable causes the correlation between 2 other variables. |
| Research Methods- Define Facilitated Communication | Children with autism communicate on a computer keyboard or letter pad with the aid of a facilitator (found useless) |
| Research Methods- Why does Research Design matter? | Because intuition and impressions are often wrong. |
| Research Methods- Define Prefrontal Lobotomy | A surgical procedure that severs fibers connecting the frontal lobes of the brain from the underlying thalamus (virtually useless) |
| Research Methods- Define Heuristics | Mental shortcuts that help us to streamline our thinking and make sense of our world- Humans are "cognitive misers"=mentally lazy |
| Research Methods-Heuristics- Define Representative Heuristic | judging the probability of an event by its superficial similarity to a prototype ("like goes with like")-people ignore base rate |
| Research Methods-Heuristics- Define Base Rate | How common a characteristic or behavior is in the general population |
| Research Methods-Heuristics- Define Availability Heuristic | Heuristic that involves estimating the likelihood of an occurence based on the ease with which it comes to our minds |
| Research Methods- Define Cognitive Biases | Systematic Errors in Thinking |
| Research Methods-Cognitive Biases- Define Hindsight Bias | tendency to overestimate how well we could have successfully forecasted known outcomes ("i knew it all along" effect) |
| Research Methods-Cognitive Biases- Define Overconfidence | Tendency to overestimate our ability to make current predictions |
| Research Methods-Cognitive Biases- Define Confirmation Bias | Natural tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypotheses and ignore, downplay or distort evidence that does not |
| Research Methods-Cognitive Biases- Example of Confirmation Bias | having "lucky" items or doing "lucky" actions |
| Define The Scientific Method | A toolbox of skills, safeguards against bias. |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena- Define Naturalistic Observation | Watching behavior in real world settings. |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena- Pros of Naturalistic Observation | High in External Validity (extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings) |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena- Cons of Naturalistic Observation | Low in Internal Validity (extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences) |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena- Example of Naturalistic Observation | Jane Goodall watching gorillas |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena- Define Case Study | Research Design that examines one person or a small number of people in depth, often over an extended time period |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena- Pros of Case Study | (1) Can help provide existence proofs (demonstrates that something CAN occur), (2) Provides opportunity to study rare phoenomena that are difficult to recreate, (3) Offer useful insights that researchers can later test in systematic investigations |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena- Cons of Case Study | (1) Can lead to misleading conclusions, (2) Can't generalize, (3) Don't really lead to WHY a phenomenon occured |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena- Define Correlational Designs | Research design that examines the extent to which 2 variables are associated (-1,0,+1) |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Correlational Designs- Define Positive Correlations | As the value of one variable goes up, the other also goes up |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Correlational Designs- Define Zero Correlations | The variables don't go together |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Correlational Designs- Define Negative Correlations | As the value of one variable goes up, the other one goes down, and vice versa. |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Correlational Designs- Define Less-Than-Perfect Correlations | Values lower than 1.0 |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Correlational Designs- Define Illusory Correlation | A statistical association between 2 variables where none exist (ex walking under ladders is bad luck) |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Correlational Designs- Define The Great Fourfold Table of Life | Table that helps visually describe the correlation between any 2 occurences (helps reorganize and pay attention to cells B-D of the table) |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Correlational Designs- Pros of The Great Fourfold Table of Life | (1) Useful for determining whether 2 (or more) variables are related, (2) Allow us to make predictions |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Correlational Designs- Cons of The Great Fourfold Table of Life | (1) There are important limitations to conclusions drawn from them, (2) Correlation does NOT equal Causation |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena- Define Experimental Designs | Research Design characterised by random asssignment of particiipants to conditions and manipulation of an independent variable |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Experimental Designs-Components of an Experiment- Define Random Assignment | Randomly sorting participants into 2 groups: Experimental Group (receives manipulation) and Control Group (doesn't receive manipulation) |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Experimental Designs-Components of an Experiment- Define Independent Variable | Variable that experimenter manipulates |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Experimental Designs-Components of an Experiment- Define Dependent Variable | Variable thtat experimenter measures to see whether the manipulation had an affect |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Experimental Designs-False Conclusions- Define Confounds | Any difference between the experimental and control groups other than the independent variable |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Experimental Designs-False Conclusions- Define Meta-Analyses | Investigation of the consistency of patterns across large numbers of studies conducted in different labratories |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Experimental Designs-False Conclusions- Pros of Meta-Analyses | (1) Helps interpret large bodies of psych literature, (2) Helps seek patterns and draw general conclusions, (3) Helps protect against Confirmation Bias |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Experimental Designs-False Conclusions- Cons of Meta-Analyses | (1) Can be misused and abused (File Drawer Problem: tendency for negative findings to remain unpublished) |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Experimental Designs-Pitfalls in Experimental Design- Define The Placebo Effect | Improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement ("sugar pills", "dummy pills") |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Experimental Designs-Pitfalls in Experimental Design- How to Prevent the Placebo Effect | Make participants blind (unaware of whether one is in the experiment or control group) to their condition |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Experimental Designs-Pitfalls in Experimental Design- Define The Nocebo Effect | Harm resulting from the mere expectation of harm (ex: Voodoo dolls) |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Experimental Designs-Pitfalls in Experimental Design- Define the Experimenter Expectancy Effect | Phenomenon in which researchers' hypotheses lead them to unintentionally bias the outcome of a study |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Experimental Designs-Pitfalls in Experimental Design- How to Prevent the Experimenter Expectancy Effect | Double Blinding (When neither the researchers nor participants are aware of who's in the exp. or cont. group) |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Experimental Designs-Pitfalls in Experimental Design- Define the Hawthorne Effect | Phenomenon in which participants' knowledge that they're being studied can affect their behavior |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Experimental Designs-Pitfalls in Experimental Design-Hawthorne Effect- Define Demand Characteristics | Cues that participants pick up from a study that allow them to generate guesses regarding the researchers' hypotheses |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Experimental Designs-Pitfalls in Experimental Design-Hawthorne Effect-How to Prevent Demand Characteristics- Define Covert Observation | Researchers conceal themselves (hidden) |
| Methods to Study Psychological Phenomena-Experimental Designs-Pitfalls in Experimental Design-Hawthorne Effect-How to Prevent Demand Characteristics- Define Participant Observation | Become part of the experiment (without informing subjects) to study groups |
| Survey Says- Define Random Selection | Procedure that ensures that every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate |
| Survey Says- Examples of Nonrandom Selection | Hite Report (1987) and Harris Organization Report |
| Survey Says-Evaluating Measures- Define Reliability | The consistency of a measurement |
| Survey Says-Evaluating Measures-Reliability- Define Test-Retest Reliability | Administer survey to random selection one day and then administer the same survey after a certain period of time |
| Survey Says-Evaluating Measures-Reliability- Define Interrater Reliability | Extent to which different people who conduct an interview, or make behavioral observations, agree on the characteristics they are measuring |
| Survey Says-Evaluating Measures- Define Validity | Extent to which a measure assesses what it purports to measure (*RELIABILITY IS NECESSARY FOR VALIDITY*) |
| Define Survey | Used to measure peoples' opinions and attitudes |
| Define Self-Reports | (aka questionnaires) Assess a variety of characteristics |
| Survey- Pros of Surveys/Self-Reports | (1) Easy to administer, (2) They're direct, (3) There are moderate correlations between self-report and reports of family and friends |
| Survey- Cons of Surveys/Self-Reports | (1) Assume respondents possess enough insight into their own personality characteristics to report on them accurately (narcassistics), (2) Assume participants are honest, (3) Engage in Response Sets |
| Survey-Cons of Surveys/Self-Reports- Define Response Sets | Tendencies of research participants to distort their responses |
| Survey-Cons of Surveys/Self-Reports-Response Sets- Define Positive Impression Management | Tendency to make ourselves look better than we actually are |
| Survey-Cons of Surveys/Self-Reports-Response Sets- Define Malingering | Tendency to make ourselves appear psychologically disturbed with the aim of achieving a clear-cut personal goal |
| Rating Data- How do they Rate? | Asking people who know an individual well to provide ratings of them |
| Rating Data- Define Halo Effect | Tendency of ratings of one positive characteristic to "spill over" to influence the ratings of other positive characteristics |
| Rating Data- Define Horns Effect | When the ratings of one negative trait spills over to influence the ratings of other negative traits |
| Rating Data- Example of Horns Effect | Obesity |
| Rating Data- Define Leniency Effect | Tendency of raters to provide ratings that are overly generous |
| Rating Data- Example of Leniency Effect | Letters of Recommendation |
| Rating Data- Example of Halo Effect | Celebrities |
| Rating Data- Define Error of Central Tendency | An unwillingness to provide extreme ratings (refusing to "go out on a limb") |
| Rating Data- How to minimize The Error of Central Tendency | Provide raters with an even number of response choices to force them to take a stand |
| Ethical Issues in Research Design- Explain Tuskegee Study | US Public Health Service performed from 1932-1972, killed many African American men to determine the natural course of syphilis, never told them there was a cure. Many wives infected, children born with syphilis, very unethical. |
| Ethical Issues in Research Design-Ethical Guidelines for Human Research- Define Institutional Review Board | board which reviews all research carefully with an eye toward protecting participants against abuses |
| Ethical Issues in Research Design-Ethical Guidelines for Human Research- Define Informed Consent | Informing research participants of what is involved in a study before asking them to participate |
| Ethical Issues in Research Design-Ethical Guidelines for Human Research-Informed Consent- Define Deception | Deliberately misleading participants about the study's purpose |
| Ethical Issues in Research Design-Ethical Guidelines for Human Research-Informed Consent- Explain Milgram Study | Electric shocks to participants with wrong answers and deceived teachers with theme of study-which is really for studying the influence of authority figures on obedience |
| Ethical Issues in Research Design-Ethical Guidelines for Human Research-Informed Consent- When Deception is Justified | (A) Researchers couldn't have performed the study without the deception, and (B) The scientific knowledge to be gained from the study outweighs the costs |
| Ethical Issues in Research Design-Ethical Guidelines for Human Research- Define Debriefing | A process whereby researchers inform participants what the study was about (afterwards) |
| Ethical Issues in Research Design-Ethical Guidelines for Human Research-Informed Consent-Milgram Study- Define Confederate | a research assistent who plays the part of the participant |
| Ethical Issues in Research Design-Ethical Issues in Animal Research- Animal Studies conducted on... | Rodents (Rats & Mice) and birds |
| Ethical Issues in Research Design-Ethical Guidelines for Human Research- Benefits of Animal Studies | Helps us learn about physiology of the brain and test medications, but is it worth the cost? |
| Define Statistics | Application of mathematics to describing and analyzing data |
| Statistics- Define Descriptive Statistics | Numerical characterizations that describe data |
| Statistics-Descriptive Statistics- Define Central Tendency | Measure of the "central" scores in a data set, or where the group tends to cluster |
| Statistics-Descriptive Statistics-Central Tendency- Define Mean, Median and Mode | The Three M's: Mean (Average), Median (Middle score), and Mode (Most frequent score) |
| Statistics-Descriptive Statistics- Define Dispersion | Measure of how loosely or tightly bunched scores are |
| Statistics-Descriptive Statistics-Dispersion- Define Range | Difference between the highest and lowest scores |
| Statistics-Descriptive Statistics-Dispersion- Define Standard Deviation | Measure of dispersion that takes into account how far each data point is from the mean |
| Define Statistical Significance | Statistical tests to prove that the first result wasn't by chance (generally use .05 level of confidence) |
| Define Practical Significance | Real-world significance |
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