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Inf & Child (2)
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Theories Allow You To... | explain multiple phenomena simultaneously, make specific & testable predictions, understand the generalizability of an explanation |
| Empiricism | nurture, all knowledge comes from experience |
| Nativism | nature, babies are endowed with knowledge and capabilities |
| Chomsky's Poverty Of The Stimulus Argument | it would be impossible for children to learn language from inpoverished & error-laden speech available to them |
| Constructivism | Piaget, Bruner, and others emphasized children's active role in their own learning |
| Piaget's Stage Theory: Stage One | sensorimotor period // birth-2 years // schemas are limited to sensory experience, no mental representations |
| Piaget Emphasized This Type Of Change | qualitative (distinct stages) |
| Schema | cognitive representation of the world, how people organize & understand information |
| Piaget's Stage Theory: Stage 2 | preoperational period // 2-7 years // emergence of mental representations such as symbolic play, defered limitation, & object permanence |
| Piaget's Stage Theory: Stage 3 | concrete operational period // 7-11 years // emergence of logical mental operations with flexible thinking but still restricted to concrete experiences |
| Piaget's Stage Theory: Stage 4 | formal operational period // 11+ years // capable of abstract thought like logical reasoning & problem solving beyond concrete experience |
| Four Key Processes Explaining How People Move Between Stages | assimilation, equilibrium, disequilibrium, accomodation |
| Assimilation | incorporate new information into an existing schema |
| Disequilibrium (Whale Example) | dad says that's not a fish it's a whale, child is confused because their schema says that things that live in the water are fish |
| Assimilation (Whale Example) | child sees a whale in the water, the child knows that fish live in water because of their schema, child calls the whale a fish |
| Disequilibrium To Equilibrium (Whale Example) | option 1: maybe my schema is right and the thing i saw doesn't live in the water // option 2: maybe my schema is wrong |
| Accommodation | change your schema to fit the new reality |
| Lev Vygotsky | thought Piaget overlooked social interactions // skills in the zone of proximal development are difficult to master alone, but can be done with guidance from a mentor // argued this is where learning occurs with the guidance of others |
| Zone Of Proximal Development | Vygotsky, things a child (or any learner) can do with help |
| Symbols | something that stands for something else |
| Dual Representation | when the symbol itself is a thing, like an object |
| Dual Representation (Finding Snoopy From Small Room To Large Room) | 2.5-year-olds can't find snoopy in the large room, but by 3 years old most can |
| Dual Representation (Finding Snoopy When The Room "Shrinks") | 2.5-year-olds succeed since the small room is no longer a symbol |
| Mental Representation | being able to hold and manipulate objects and events in mind |
| Deferred Limitation | copying another person's actions later, hours of days after the child witnessed the actions (involves memory) |
| Displaced Reference | when children understand and use words to refer to things that are not present (important for language development & pretend play) |
| Object Permanence | understanding an object continues to exist, even when you don't see it |
| Egocentrism | the tendency of children to believe that other people view the world form the same perspective as themselves |
| Egocentrism According To Piaget | not until concrete operational stage (7) // BUT Piaget overstated children's difficulties with egocentrism and they likely demonstrate some ability earlier during this period (3-4) |
| Failing Conservation Tasks According To Piaget | pre-operational thinking (early childhood) |
| Error In Piaget's Idea Of Failing Conservation Tasks | centration focusing on only one dimension (example: height of the water or length of the line made by the items) |
| Why Can Children Understand Conservation By The Concrete Operational Stage? | decentration & reversibility |
| Decetration | the ability to focus on more than one part of a problem, situation, or object |
| Reversibility | realization that objects/things can be change or returned to their original state |
| Classification Isn't Always Straightforward (Bear Example) | the bear is a bear, an animal, covered in fur, and dangerous |
| Classification In The Preoperational Stage (Three Animal Cards VS 1 Wagon) | when asked which three cards are the same, the 4 year old claims that all the cards are different // he can't reason about the larger categories that they are in // requires thinking about sets and subsets |
| Mental Operations Allow Children To Combine... | reversibility & classification (example: bead experiment) |
| Concrete Operational Children (Middle Childhood) In The Bead Experiment... | CAN compare the subset (red) to the total (wooden) |
| Preoperational Children (Early Childhood) In The Bead Experiment... | CANNOT compare the subset (red) to the total (wooden) |
| Deductive Reasoning | drawing a specific conclusion from general principles // still difficult until age 11 since children will focus on what they know of have experience with, rather than the logical premise involved in the problem |
| Issue With Piaget's Approach: All-Or-Nothing Stage Theory | children don't cleanly go from one stage to the next for all tasks |
| Issue With Piaget's Approach: Underestimating Infant's & Young Children's Abilities | Piaget underestimated this because he tupically relied on complicated tasks that children might fail for other reasons |
| Issue With Piaget's Approach: Processes Of Assimilation & Accommodation | the processes of assimilation and accommodation for explaining change needed to be more precise |
| Evolutionary Theory | adaptation |
| Psychodymanic Theories | internal processes |
| Behaviorism Theory | external behavior & environment |
| Contructivism Theory | child as active learned |
| Sociocultural Theory | role of mentors/adults/teachers |
| Conservation, Classification, Class Inclusion, Perspective Taking Are Developed At What Piaget Stage? | concrete operational (stage 3, 7-11 years) |
| For Piaget, Mental Representations Don't Emerge Until... | Stage 2 |
| Piaget's Object Permanance | failure to search for or engage with a toy after it's hidden (success around 8 months) // failure to update where a toy is hidden (success around 12-18 months) |
| Dynamic Systems Theorists | unlike Piaget, wanted more emphasis on in-the-moment contextual influences, rather than mental representations (changing features of the experimental context dramatically changes behavior) |
| Dynamic Systems: Context Effects | it can't just be about mental schemas, because changing features of the context can change performance (examples: posture, adding glittery sleeve, adding pause) |
| Information-Processing Theorists | unlike Piaget, posit gradual development changes, rather than qualitative stages |
| Piaget Described Errors Children Make And Put People Into Stages, Which Is An Example Of What Change? | qualitative (may not be the best explanation) |
| Nativists | claim that Piaget underestimated infant's cogntitive ability, since other methods of testing show that infants likely do have mental representations before Piaget believed |
| The Basic Observation Underlying A Lot Of Nativist Perspectives Stems From The Observation That... | young children are likely the most effective learners on earth // it would probably be impossible for children to learn so rapidly from impoverished & error-laden input available to them |
| Core Knowledge Theory | "children learn fast and flexibly, because they are endowed with at least 6 cognitive systems that capture fundamental properties of the things they learn about" |
| Six Cognitive Systems | objects, numbers, places, geometry, agents, social beings |
| In The Car Experiment, Infants Look Longer At... | the unexpected event (when the car exited instead of stopped) |
| Core Knowledge: Objects | infants have innate knowledge or capacity to learn about the physical properties of objecrs |
| Principles Of Persistence | the idea that objects retain their physical properties over time & space |
| Object Permanence | objects continue to exist when they aren't visible |
| Object Cohesion | objects should hold together, or retain their physical properties over time |
| Object Continuity | objects should move along continuous paths in time and space |
| Object Gravity, Support, & Contact | objects cannot move on their own or support themselves, only with contact/support |
| Property: Solidity | by 3.5 months, infants look longer at the impossible event (refer back to 7-2 slides) |
| Property: Height/Size | the idea that object retain their physical properties such as height // by 3.5 months, infants looked longer at the "impossible" event (refer to 7-2 for carrot experiment) |
| Property: Support | 3 months: know objects can't float in mid-air // 5 months: type of contact matters // 6.5 months: amount of contact matters |
| Evidence For Innateness In Terms Of Knowledge About Objects | 1) when newborns are tested, they also show these abilities // 2) non-human animals, including newborn chicks, show many of these abilities |
| "What" VS "Where" Of Objects | infants earliest object concepts seems to include an object index that specified location information but not featural information |
| In The Duck & Shoe Experiment, Because Infants Only See One Object At A Time, They're Tracking... | one index (they aren't tracking whether it's a shoe or a duck) |
| Properties Of An Object Index | functions like a pointer, does not contain information about features or properties of this object, infants only have 3-4 indices available, indices and primary assigned by location early in infancy |
| Violation Of Expectation Paradigm | refer to 8-1 slides |
| In A Continuous Event, Babies Expect... | one object |
| In A Discontinuous Event, Babies Expect... | two objects |
| Number Knowledge In Infancy: Core Object System | supports rapid determination of the exact number of objects up to a capacity limit of about three |
| Number Knowledge In Infancy: Core Number System | represents approximate or imprecise numerical sizes of sets, in any perceptual modality (examples: visual sets of objects, number of tones heard, number of ridges felt) |
| Tracking Small Sets | infants can track small exact number of objects, events, and actions |
| Sequence Of 1+1 & Sequence Of 2-1 | 5-month-old infants look longer at impossible event (refer to 8-1) |
| Small & Exact Numbers Summary | infants can track up to three objects, events, or actions at a time // this happens quickly and automatically // it is precise: exactly one, exactly two, or exactly three // this might be due to the core object systems // sometimes called "subitizing" |
| Approximate Number System (ANS) | supports infant's capacity for tracking large numerical magnitudes, approximately |
| What Age Can Babies Discriminate 20 VS 10 Dots (2:1)? | 6 months |
| ANS Precision Improves Over Development | newborns succeed at 3:1 but fail at 2:1 // 6-month-olds succeed at 2:1 but fail at 2:3 // as people get older, they get better at telling apart numbers that are closer and closer together |
| What Happened When Newborns Heard Tones & Saw Visual Sets That Either Matched Or Mismatched? | they looked longer at the set that matched what they heard when the ratio was 3:1, but failed to show a difference for 2:1 |
| Number In The Brain | the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) shows evidence of approximate magnitude representations // this is shown across human development & in monkeys // might also change developmentally and as children learn numerical symbols |
| Large & Approximate Quantities Summary | infants, non-human animals, & adult humans across cultures can represent large sets // this happens quickly & automatically // it is approximate (Weber's law) // the ANS can also support approximate arithmetic like adding, dividing, & subtracting |
| Being Able To Say The Count List In Order Is Different From... | really knowing what the number means |
| Cardinal Principle | that the last number word you say when counting represents the size of the set (often measured using Give-N) |
| There Is One Theory About Children Learing 1 then 2 then 3 then maybe 4. And Then Making A Conceptual Leap To Understanding The Cardinal Principle | but this is debated! |
| Estimating Magnitude On A Number Line Is A Strong Predictor Of... | later math ability |
| Number Lines: Describing Development | at first, children put too much space between early numbers, & squish together later numbers // later, children can do it with equal spacing but it depends on the end point |
| Number Lines: Explaining Development | debated! // this happens at least in part because of the strategies kids use (example: finding a mid point) |
| Even When Controlling For Many Confounds, ANS And Symbolic Math Usually Have A... | significant correlation (higher for symbolic than non-symbolic) |
| Navigation | spatial navigation of our local environment is critical for most species and virtually all of history |
| Things We Can Use For Navigation | landmarks (stairs, statues) // spatial structure (top, bottom) // room structure (long wall on the leftt) |
| Children & Rats Don't Use Landmarks To Reorient, But Use... | distance and direction of walls (refer to 8-2) |
| Reorientation | the action of changing the focus or direction of something |
| Children Do Understand Landmarks, They Just Can't Use Them When They Are... | disoriented (refer to 8-2) |
| It Seems That Children, And Rats, Reorient Themselves Using Distances And Directions Of The Walls That Border The Floor | adults can do this too, but they also use landmarks |
| When Do Children Start To Integrate Landmarks Into Reorientation? | around 6-years (this could potentially be due to learning more spatial language like left and right) |
| Our System For Reorientation Relies On Features Of... | spatial layout & geometry (specifically distance & directions of things on the floor) // using landmarks and object is not part of this systems, though young children can use landmarks for other navigation tasks |
| We Share Our Reorientation System With... | other animals |
| Domain-General Learning Approaches Ask... | how do flexible processes like self-regulation & executive function shape learning across domains? |
| Executive Functions (EF) | a collection of skills involved in controlling and coordinating attention, memory, and other behaviors involved in goal-directed actions |
| Don't Think Of Executive Funcions As A Specific Content Knowledge, But As A... | control system |
| The Three Processes That Are Often Conceptualized As Related, But Not Distinct Executive Functions Are... | working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility |
| Working Memory | children's ability to hold and manipulate items in mind (working memory capacity grows from infancy, to early childhood, to adolescence) |
| The Reverse Digit Span Tasks | children are given a set of numbers and are asked to repeat them backwards (measures working memory) |
| Inhibitory Control | children's ability to respond appropriately to a stimulus with inhibiting an alternative & dominant response |
| Day-Night Stroop Task | children are asked to say night if they see the sun and vice versa, significant improvement from ages 3-5 (measures inhibitory control) |
| Cognitive Flexibility | children's ability to adapt to changing circumstances such as switching between rules & tasks |
| Dimensional Card Sort Task | red truck & blue flower task, substantial improvement around age 4 (measures cognitive flexibility) |
| Developmental Change In Executive Functions: Infancy | early precursors (example: basic attention regulation) |
| Developmental Change In Executive Functions: Toddlerhood/Preschool Years | rapid growth // high variability across people & contexts |
| Developmental Change In Executive Functions: Middle Childhood | more efficient, more integrated, better strategies // large effect of school and social expectations |
| Executive Functioning Development Is Gradual, Non-Linear, & Context Dependent | happens over time |
| Executive Functions Are Typically Associated With Better Long Term Life Outcomes Such As | better math skills when transitioning from preschool to kindergarten // more effective resolving of peer conflict at ages 4-5 // attention-span at age 4 predicted college completion at age 25 |
| In The Social Expectation Experiment, Where One Child Received An Art (Reliable) Kit And The Other Didn't (Unreliable), The Child In The Reliable Condition Waited... | 4x longer (this is an adaptive response, not "poor self-control" |
| Takeaways Of Executive Functioning | executive function is real, but how we recognize it depends on cultural values // when we treat one expression of self-control as universal, we risk labeling difference as deficit |
| Metacognition | being able to monitor and regulate your own cognitive processes (example: if you don't think you know enough, you'll study more) |
| Motivation | the desire and willingness to attain a goal and the continuation of effort and interest towards that goal |
| Intrinsic Motivation | motivation to engage because of internal factors, including finding the activity pleasurable |
| Extrinsic Motivation | motivation to engage because of external factors, such as rewards or punishments |
| Often Times, Play Is More Intrinsic Motivation While School Is More... | extrinsic motivation |
| If You're Already Intrinsically Motivated, Adding An Extrinsic Motivation Can Be... | detrimental (if you give a reward for a task then remove it, children do not want to do the task anymore) |
| If You're Not Intrinsically Motivated And Just Need To Do The Thing, Adding An Extrinsic Motivation Can... | help (during a task, there is no decrease in quality or intrinsic motivation) |
| Incremental Theory Of Intelligence | growth mindset: the view that intelligence is changeable and may improve with practice over time (example: i can learn anything i want to) |
| Entity Theory Of Intelligence | fixed mindset: the view that intelligence is innate and unchangeable (example: i'm either good at it, or i'm not) |
| Input And Mindsets | mindsets can be influenced by input (example: parents) |
| Process Praise | praise focused on children's work and efforts // can spatial children's motivation and interest // can create "protection" for when things get hard |
| Person Praise | praise focused on children's fixed abilities or traits // can undermine children's motivation and achievement |
| Metacognition, Motivation, And Mindsets All Work Together, And They Can Either Support Learning Or... | undermine it (depending on the context) |
| Context For Metacognition, Motivation, And Mindsets Might Include... | cultural values, social expectations, task demands, the child's goals, etc. |
| Attention | the allocation of limited cognitive resources |
| Core Components Of Attention | sustained attention, selective attention, joint attention |
| Sustained Attention | staying focused (core component of attention) |
| Selective Attention | filtering distractions (core component of attention) |
| Joint Attention | coordinating attention with others (core component of attention) |
| Sustained Attention Is Not A Fixed State, But... | a process that shifts between four phases |
| Ways To Assess Attention In Infants | gaze, physiological measures (heart rate) |
| Brain Regions Associated With Sustained Attention Become More Organized, Less Scattered, And More Efficient Between Ages... | 6-12 months |
| Selective Attention Can Be Pulled To Certain Stimuli And Controlled By... | our own intentions |
| Stimulus Salience | how attractive, prominent, or noticeable a stimulus is (more salient stimuli are more likely to get our attention) |
| More Salient Stimuli Are More Likely To... | get our attention |
| Development Of Attention: Early In Infancy | orienting response, gaining more control over their own attention, increased ability for sustained attention |
| Development Of Attention: Through Childhood | continued increases in sustained attention, greater voluntary control of attention (selective attention) |
| Dominant View Of Memory | there are multiple systems or processes or memory (working memory, long-term memory) |
| Declarative Memories | form of long-term memory: knowing "that" |
| Semantic Memory | type of declarative memory: general knowledge, facts, concepts |
| Episodic Memory | type of declarative memory: recollection of your own personal experiences |
| Procedural Memories | form of long-term memory: knowing "how" |
| Habituation Rate For Attention & Information Processing | the time it takes for a decrease in infants' response to a stimulus after repeated exposure to the stimulus |
| Novelty Preference In Memory | the rebounding of infant attention to a novel stimulus relative to a familiar stimulus |
| Testing Long Term Memory In Infancy | conjugate mobile experiments: tie a string connecting to a mobile to infants' legs so that when they kick it moves, infants will learn that kicking=movement, test if they still kick after coming back later |
| Memory Duration Through Infancy: In The Conjugate Mobile Experiments, A 2-Month-Old Will Remember After... | 1 day |
| Memory Duration Through Infancy: In The Conjugate Mobile Experiments, A 3-Month-Old Will Remember After... | 8 days |
| Memory Duration Through Infancy: In The Conjugate Mobile Experiments, A 6-Month-Old Will Remember After... | 2 weeks |
| Infantile Amnesia: Adults Typically Report Their Earliest Memory To Be Around... | 3 & 4 years, no earlier than age 2 |
| Theories On Why Infantile Amnesia Exists | maybe they were never stored in the first place, limited language prevents retrieving the memory, our early memories degrade & don't last long (we don't know for sure) |
| Consolidation Strengthens Connections Among... | related memories |
| Interactions Between Semantic & Working Memory | as children's knowledge grows → they can rely on stored semantic memories instead of working memory → their working memory is freed up to manipulate new information → more learning is possible |
| Better Metacognition Leads To Better Memory Strategies Such As... | rehearsal, organization, elaboration |
| Memory Strategy: Rehearsal | repeating items to oneself |
| Memory Strategy: Organization | grouping related items together |
| Memory Strategy: Elaboration | creating a relationship between pieces of information from different categories |
| Organization And Elaboration Memory Strategies Combine Items Into Meaningful Chunks, Further Expanding... | working memory |
| It's Easier To Create Meaningful Chunks If You Have More... | knowledge (semantic memory) |
| "Prelinguistic" Or "Preverbal" | a term people sometimes use to refer to babies <12 months because on average they aren't talking yet |
| For Babies Learning Standard Language, The First Spoken Word On Average Happens At... | 12 months |
| For Babies Learning Sign Language, The First Signed Word On Average Happens At... | 10 months |
| Phonemes | basic units of sound in a language (over 800 across all languages and dialects, English has about 45) |
| Newborns Can Discriminate Phonemes Across... | languages |
| Babies' Ability To Percieve Other-Language Will Decrease By Age... | 10-12 months (example of perceptual narrowing) |
| Sounds Before Words: Crying Happens Around Age.... | newborn, "all cries are not equal" |
| Sounds Before Words: Cooing Happens Around Age.... | 2-3 months, "ahhh" & "ooo" |
| Sounds Before Words: Babbling Or Sounding Canonical Syllables Happens Around Age.... | 6-7 months |
| Sounds Before Words: Saying Conventional "Words" Happens Around Age.... | 12 months |
| Development Of Making Sounds Before Words For Deaf & HoH Infants | typically slower to begin verbal babbling, similar progress in language development with exposure to sign languages |
| Statistical Learning In Language | percieve and learn regularities in language (which sounds typically go together, sounds together probably form words) |
| Contingent-Listening Paradigm | measures preference between stimuli in 8-month-old infants by familiarization with contingent preference |
| Infants Listen Longer To Part-Words Or Non-Words Than... | to full words (light experiment, refer to 11-1) |
| What Is The First Word Or Combination Of Sounds Babies Recognize? | their own name! // around 4 months, babies are typically familiar with their own name, though they likely don't know yet that it refers to them |
| You Would Expect Familiar People To Understand Most Of What The Child Is Saying By Age... | 3 (develops through practice) |
| You Would Expect Strangers To Understand Most Of What The Child Is Saying By Age... | 4 (develops through practice) |
| Babies Understand More Than What They... | say |
| Receptive Language | what babies understand (higher than productive language) |
| Babies Understand Several Common Nouns By... | 6 months |
| Babies Understand Some Non-Nouns By... | 10-13 months |
| Similar Words Appeared In The Top 10 Across All Languages, With Words Including... | important family members, social routines, and sounds (verbs/adjectives are rarely present) |
| Whole Object Bias | cognitive constraint in language acquisition where children assume a new label refers to an entire object rather than its parts, properties, or actions |
| There Is A Large Vocabulary Spurt During... | the 2nd year of life (includes a large increase in non-nouns) |
| Fast-Mapping | learning a word after only one exposure (contributes to vocab spurt during 2nd year of life) |
| Children Can Typically Produce Most Of The Words In There Repertoire By Age... | 3 (though reception may still be higher than production) |
| A Child Likely Has 10,000 Words By Age... | 6 |
| Syntax | set of rules that govern the ordering of parts of speech to form meaningful sentences (example: word order) |
| Syntactic Bootstrapping | language acquisition theory proposing that children use the syntactic structure (grammar) of sentences to infer the meanings of new words which are particularly verbs (infants can do this even before producing sentences) |
| English-Learning Infants Are Sensitive To Word Order By Age... | 17 months |
| English-Learning Infants Put Words Together By Age... | 18-24 months (but the might still be telegraphic sentences like "mommy shoe") |
| Morphology | suffixes and prefixes |
| Overregularizations | over applying language rules (example: -ed for past tense, she drived) |
| The Evidence That Children are Learning The Rules Of Language In A Productive Way Is... | overregularizations |
| Pragmatics | social conventions and norms around language that children must learn to effectively communicate |
| Pragmatics: Turn Taking | protoconversations, "give & take" dialogue, begin in first weeks of life |
| Pragmatics: Gestures | protodeclaratives, gestures used to direct someone's attention |
| Pragmatics: Gaze | used to communicate attention, can be helpful for word learning, establish joint attention, directing attention |
| Mutual Exlusivity | the expectation that an entity has only one name |
| Language Acquisition Device | an innate component of the brain that supports language learning (proposed by Noam Chomsky, explains why humans are good at language learning) |
| Based On The Input, Infants Build Language From The... | bottom up |
| "We Can't Actually Find A Language Gene Or Genes" Is Not A Good Argument For Innateness Because... | we wouldn't expect a close 1-1 correspondence // even if we found it, it might be a gene for a specific learning mechanism |
| "Other Species With The Same Other Abilities Don't Have Language" Is Not A Good Argument For Innateness Because... | it's really hard to decide what abilities are the same/different // and what about concepts that might be different? |
| "Critical Period For Language Is Innate" Is Not A Good Argument For Innateness Because... | an innately specified schedule to learning doesn't mean that the thing being learned (in this case language) is innate |
| Deaf Children, In The Absence Of Language Input, Create Their Own... | linguistic system |
| Deaf Children's "Homesign" Is More Structured Than Typical... | gestures |
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