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psych midterm 2
psych stats midterm 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| subjective | based on or influenced by personal feelings or opinions |
| objective | not influenced by personal feelings or opinions in considering and representing facts |
| Z score or standardized score | a measure of how many standard deviations a given data point or observation is away from the norm (average or mean) |
| absolute value | the magnitude of a real number without regard to its sign. |
| data transformation | any procedure that converts data points from one format to another |
| heat map | A two-dimensional graphical representation of data that uses different shades of color to indicate frequency |
| meta-analysis | a "study of studies" that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion |
| tails | The far right and far left portions of the normal curve (less probable) data fall in the tails |
| empirical rule | the rule that states portions of the normal curve exist between z scores of -3 -2 -1, 0, 1, 2, and 3 / .13, 2.14, 13.59, 34.13 |
| percentile | The percentage of the individuals in the distribution with scores at or below a particular value |
| probability | likelihood that a particular event will occur |
| equal likelihood model | A model of probability with the premise that all outcomes are equally likely |
| law of large numbers | a probability theorem stating that the expected distribution of equally likely events tends to become apparent only after the event occurred a large number of times |
| absolute risk or absolute chance | Probability of an event occurring in a population. |
| relative risk or relative chance | The probability of an event occurring in a group, relative to the same event occurring in another group |
| Sampling error | The difference between the characteristics of the entire population and the imperfectly representative characteristics of a sample used to estimate the population; occurs whenever statisticians use a random sample of data instead of the entire population. |
| representative sample | A sample with approximately the same mean and standard deviation as the underlying population. |
| Sampling bias | Occurs when a sampling process does not produce a representative sample of the population. Sampling bias can happen incidentally when collecting a convenience sample or dishonestly through a deliberate and unethical intent to skew the research. |
| inferential statistics | Statistical tests that allow us to make generalizations about a population based on a sample. |
| Convenience sample | A sample that is easy to collect but not necessarily representative of a population. |
| Most convenience samples are subject to at least some sampling bias. | |
| mu | A lowercase Greek letter that is used to represent the population mean. |
| Distribution of sample means | The hypothetical distribution of all the possible means of all possible samples of a given sample size. |
| Sigma σ | population standard deviation |
| Standard error | The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of sample means. |
| Theorem | A mathematical statement which we can prove to be true |
| Central Limit Theorem | The mathematical and statistical theorem indicating that the distribution of sample means is roughly normally distributed as long as the sample sizes are sufficiently large and the data don't have dramatic skew or outliers. |
| null hypothesis significance testing | a test created to determine the chances that an alternative hypothesis would produce a result as extreme as the one observed if the null hypothesis were actually true |
| P value | The probability of results of the experiment being attributed to chance. |
| null hypothesis | a statistical statement that there is no effect, no difference, or no relationship between variables |
| alternative hypothesis | The hypothesis that states there is a difference between two or more sets of data. |
| directional alternative hypothesis | A hypothesis stating that the experimental manipulation will cause the experimental group to be either higher or lower on the dependent variable (DV) at the end of the experiment. |
| Non directional alternative hypothesis | A hypothesis stating that the control and experimental groups will differ at the end of an experiment, but without specifying that one group will be higher or lower than the other. |
| Two tailed test | A nondirectional test in which we hypothesize that our experimental participants could be either higher or lower on the dependent variable (DV) at the end of the experiment. |
| Rejection Region | Area where null hypothesis is rejected. |
| One-tailed test (directional test) | A variation on NHST in which the statistician predicts that the experimental-group mean will be either higher or lower than the control group mean. |
| Right tailed test | A one-tailed statistical test to determine if an experimental manipulation will leave participants with a higher mean score than the control group on the dependent variable. |
| Left tailed test | A one-tailed statistical test to determine if an experimental manipulation will leave participants with a lower mean score than the control group on the dependent variable. |
| Statistical significance | This claim indicates that the statistician believes the chances of obtaining the results that were obtained, if the null is true, are equal to or less than 5%. Other values are sometimes used, but p ≤ 0.05 is the standard in psychology. |
| Test Statistic | A number that is derived via a formula for different statistical tests and used to derive a p value. The p value is then used to determine statistical significance. |
| Z test | A statistical test that evaluates whether a value for a variable collected from a population and a preexisting value for that same variable (perhaps a specific claim about that variable) are different from each other. |
| Point estimate | Single number estimate of a value. Doesn't tel the whole story of the data |
| Margin of error | |
| P hacking | Any practice performed to ensure that a statistical analysis results in a significant p value. |
| true positive | Occurs when the NHST rejects the null hypothesis and the null hypothesis is false |
| True negative | Occurs when the NHST fails to reject the null hypothesis and the null hypothesis is true |
| Type I Error | Rejecting null hypothesis when it is true |
| Type II error | failing to reject a false null hypothesis |
| False Positive | Synonym for type I error |
| Alpha | The probability of committing a Type I error, or rejecting the null hypothesis when the data are not actually statistically significant. |
| Beta (β) | (1) The probability of committing a Type Il error, or failing to reject the null hypothesis when the data are actually statistically significant. (2) An effect-size measure for regression. |
| False Negative | |
| Power | The likelihood of not committing Type Il error; also refers to the idea of sufficient participant numbers to detect a statistical difference. |
| Effect size | A measurement of the size of the difference between different populations or the relationship between variables. |
| Eta Squared (η²) | Proportion of variance explained by independent variable. |
| Cohen's d | The effect size measured used when conducting a t test |
| Confidence Interval | An interval of variable values that is likely to contain a specified value, usually a population mean. |
| ZcI | The z score that corresponds to the selected confidence interval |
| Normative data | data that are typical of participants who complete a psychological assessment |
| lower limit | the mean minus the margin of error, or the lower of the two number that make up the confidence interval |
| upper limit | the mean plus the margin of error or the higher of the two numbers that make up the confidence interval |
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skyfalls
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