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Brain Facts
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| A-beta fibers | Thick-myelinated nerve fibers that conduct information rapidly from mechanoreceptors; they respond to light touch. |
| Absence seizures | A type of generalized seizure characterized by a brief loss of consciousness (staring spells). |
| Acetylcholine | The first neurotransmitter identified; critical for muscle contraction and heart rate control. |
| Acetylcholinesterase | An enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft. |
| Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) | Caused by HIV, leads to neurocognitive disorders by affecting the brain and immune system. |
| Action potential | An electrical charge that travels along the axon when the membrane potential reaches a threshold. |
| Active immunization | Method of triggering the immune system to produce its own antibodies against a pathogen. |
| Addiction | A chronic, relapsing brain disease characterized by compulsive drug seeking despite harm. |
| A-delta fibers | Small, myelinated nerve fibers that transmit sharp, immediate "first" pain. |
| Adenosine | A neurochemical that inhibits arousal and increases sleep pressure during waking hours. |
| Adenovirus | A type of virus used as a vector in gene therapy to deliver genetic material. |
| Adrenal cortex | The outer layer of the adrenal gland; secretes cortisol during long-term stress. |
| Adrenal glands | Glands on the kidneys that release adrenaline and cortisol in response to stress. |
| Adrenal medulla | The inner part of the adrenal gland; secretes epinephrine for the fight-or-flight response. |
| Adrenaline (epinephrine) | A hormone/neurotransmitter that increases heart rate and blood pressure during stress. |
| Aerobic exercise | Physical activity that stimulates the release of neurotrophic factors like BDNF. |
| Aging | The natural process of growing older, involving structural and functional brain changes. |
| Agnosia | The inability to recognize objects or persons despite intact sensory function. |
| Agonists | Chemicals that bind to and activate a receptor, mimicking a neurotransmitter. |
| Akinesia | Loss or impairment of voluntary movement, often seen in Parkinson's. |
| Alcohol | A CNS depressant that enhances GABA and inhibits NMDA receptors. |
| Alcohol abuse | Habitual misuse of alcohol leading to dependence and brain damage. |
| Alertness | A state of readiness for attention, regulated by the reticular activating system. |
| Allodynia | A condition where a non-painful stimulus (like light touch) is perceived as painful. |
| Alpha motor neuron | Large neurons in the spinal cord that signal muscle fibers to contract. |
| Alpha-synuclein (SNCA) | A protein that forms toxic clumps (Lewy bodies) in Parkinson’s disease. |
| ALS-FTD (ALS-frontotemporal dementia) | A spectrum disorder combining ALS motor symptoms with frontotemporal dementia. |
| Alzheimer’s disease | Common dementia characterized by amyloid-beta plaques and tau tangles. |
| Amnesia | A memory deficit caused by brain damage, disease, or trauma. |
| AMPA receptors | Glutamate receptors that mediate fast excitatory synaptic transmission. |
| Amphetamine | A stimulant that increases levels of dopamine and norepinephrine. |
| Amygdala | Limbic system structure involved in emotional processing, especially fear. |
| Amyloid hypothesis | Theory that amyloid-beta plaque accumulation is the primary cause of Alzheimer's. |
| Amyloid precursor protein (APP) | A protein cleaved into amyloid-beta peptides that form plaques. |
| Amyloid-beta | Protein fragments that accumulate into neuritic plaques in Alzheimer's. |
| Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) | Fatal disease involving the progressive degeneration of motor neurons. |
| Analgesic | A drug used to relieve pain without loss of consciousness. |
| Anandamide | An endocannabinoid neurotransmitter that binds to THC receptors. |
| Antagonists | Drugs that bind to receptors and block them from being activated. |
| Anterior cingulate cortex | Involved in error detection, empathy, and the emotional aspect of pain. |
| Anterior insula | Involved in processing bodily sensations and internal awareness. |
| Antibodies | Immune system proteins that recognize and neutralize foreign substances. |
| Anticoagulant drugs | Medications that prevent blood clotting to reduce stroke risk. |
| Antidepressants | Medications that treat depression by altering serotonin/norepinephrine levels. |
| Antiepileptic agents | Drugs used to prevent seizures by reducing excessive neuronal firing. |
| Anti-inflammatory | A substance that reduces swelling and inflammation. |
| Antioxidants | Molecules that neutralize free radicals to prevent oxidative stress. |
| Antipsychotic drugs | Medications used to manage psychosis, delusions, and hallucinations. |
| Antiretroviral treatment | Drugs used to manage HIV and prevent related neurocognitive decline. |
| Anxiety | Emotional state of tension, worried thoughts, and physical changes. |
| Anxiety disorders | Conditions where persistent anxiety interferes with daily functioning. |
| Aphasia | Language disorder caused by brain damage affecting speech or comprehension. |
| Aplysia californica (sea slug) | A sea slug model used to study the cellular basis of learning and memory. |
| APOE | A gene; the E4 variant is a major risk factor for Alzheimer's. |
| Apoptosis | Programmed cell death; a natural process to remove unhealthy cells. |
| Arousal | Physiological state of being awake, regulated by the brainstem. |
| Ascending pathway | Neural circuits carrying sensory info from the body to the brain. |
| Association fibers | Axons that connect different regions within the same cerebral hemisphere. |
| Astrocytes | Glial cells that support neurons and regulate the blood-brain barrier. |
| Atherosclerosis | Hardening of arteries that can lead to stroke. |
| Atonia | Temporary muscle paralysis during REM sleep to prevent dream enactment. |
| Attention | Cognitive process of focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others. |
| Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) | Disorder characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. |
| Auditory nerve | Carries electrical signals from the cochlea to the brain. |
| Autism spectrum disorders | Developmental disorders affecting social interaction and behavior. |
| Autobiographical self | The sense of self derived from personal history and episodic memory. |
| Autoimmune response | When the immune system attacks the body's own healthy tissue. |
| Autonomic (involuntary) nervous system | Regulates involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion. |
| Axon | Nerve fiber that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body. |
| Axon terminals | The ends of axons where neurotransmitters are released into synapses. |
| Basal ganglia | Subcortical structures involved in motor control, habits, and reward. |
| Basilar membrane | Structure in the cochlea that vibrates in response to sound. |
| Benzodiazepines | Drugs that enhance GABA to treat anxiety, insomnia, and seizures. |
| Beta-blocker drugs | Medications that block adrenaline to manage physical anxiety symptoms. |
| Binge drinking | Excessive alcohol use in a short period; damaging to developing brains. |
| Binocular vision | Using both eyes to perceive depth and three-dimensional space. |
| Biomarkers | Indicators used to measure biological states or disease progression. |
| Bipolar disorder | Condition marked by extreme mood swings (mania and depression). |
| Blind spot | Area of the retina where the optic nerve exits, lacking photoreceptors. |
| Blindness | Loss of vision due to damage to eyes, optic nerve, or visual cortex. |
| Blood-brain barrier | Selective barrier preventing harmful blood substances from entering the brain. |
| Brain imaging | Techniques (MRI, PET) used to visualize brain structure and activity. |
| Brain states | Distinct patterns of brain activity (e.g., sleep vs. wake). |
| Brain waves | Rhythmic electrical patterns of neurons measured by EEG. |
| Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) | Protein that promotes neuron survival and growth; increased by exercise. |
| Brain-machine interfaces | Systems connecting the brain directly to external devices. |
| Brainstem | Connects brain to spinal cord; controls life-sustaining functions. |
| Broca’s area | Frontal lobe region critical for speech production. |
| C fibers | Small, unmyelinated fibers transmitting slow, dull, aching pain. |
| Caffeine | Stimulant that blocks adenosine receptors to increase alertness. |
| Calcium | Ion that triggers neurotransmitter release when entering the axon terminal. |
| Cannabidiol | Non-psychoactive cannabis compound with potential anti-seizure effects. |
| Cannabinoid receptors | Receptors in the brain/immune system that bind THC or endocannabinoids. |
| Cannabinoids | Compounds acting on cannabinoid receptors (THC, CBD, anandamide). |
| Cataplexy | Sudden loss of muscle tone triggered by emotion, seen in narcolepsy. |
| Cell body | The core of the neuron containing the nucleus; also called the soma. |
| Central nervous system | Consists of the brain and the spinal cord. |
| Central pattern generators | Spinal circuits that produce rhythmic movements like walking. |
| Cerebellum | Controls coordination, balance, and fine motor skills. |
| Cerebral cortex | Outer layer of the brain responsible for high-level thinking. |
| Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) | Clear fluid protecting the brain and delivering nutrients. |
| Cerebrum | The largest part of the brain, consisting of two hemispheres. |
| Checkpoint inhibitors | Immunotherapy that removes "brakes" on the immune system to fight tumors. |
| Chemotherapy | Use of drugs to kill cancer cells, limited by the blood-brain barrier. |
| Cholinergic neurons | Neurons that use acetylcholine as their primary neurotransmitter. |
| Cholinesterase inhibitors | Drugs that prevent acetylcholine breakdown, used for Alzheimer's. |
| Chorea | Involuntary, jerky movements seen in Huntington's disease. |
| Chromatin | Complex of DNA and protein that makes up chromosomes. |
| Chromosomes | DNA structures carrying genetic information. |
| Chronic pain | Persistent pain lasting months or years beyond normal healing time. |
| Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) | Progressive brain disease caused by repetitive head trauma. |
| Circadian rhythms | 24-hour biological cycles, such as sleep-wake. |
| Classical conditioning | Learning where a neutral stimulus is paired with a meaningful one. |
| Clonazepam | A benzodiazepine used to treat seizures and panic. |
| Club drugs | Psychoactive drugs (MDMA, GHB) used in social/party settings. |
| Cocaine | Stimulant that blocks dopamine reuptake, causing euphoria. |
| Cochlea | Snail-shaped inner ear structure converting sound to electrical signals. |
| Cognitive ability | Mental capacity for thinking, reasoning, and memory. |
| Cognitive behavioral therapy | Therapy focusing on changing negative thought/behavior patterns. |
| Cognitive control | Ability to direct thoughts/actions toward internal goals. |
| Competitive elimination | Developmental pruning of redundant or weak synaptic connections. |
| Complex focal seizures | Seizures in one area causing impaired consciousness and automatisms. |
| Computational neuroscience | Using math/models to study brain information processing. |
| Computerized tomography (CT) | X-ray technique for cross-sectional brain imaging. |
| Concept cells | Neurons that respond to specific ideas or identities (e.g., Jennifer Aniston). |
| Cones | Photoreceptors for color vision and high-detail central vision. |
| Continuous positive airway pressure or “CPAP” machine | Machine providing constant air pressure to treat sleep apnea. |
| Coordination | Harmonious muscle function for complex movement. |
| CORF | Genetic mutation related to cortical malformation. |
| Cornea | Transparent front surface of the eye that focuses light. |
| Corpus callosum | Fiber bundle connecting the two cerebral hemispheres. |
| Cortical thinning | Reduction in cortex thickness during adolescence and aging. |
| Cortisol | Stress hormone released by the adrenal cortex. |
| Cranial nerves | 12 pairs of nerves emerging from the brain to control head/neck. |
| Craniotomy | Surgical opening of the skull to access the brain. |
| CREB (cAMP-response element binding protein) | Protein regulating genes essential for long-term memory. |
| CRISPR | Tool for precise gene editing. |
| Critical periods | Developmental windows where the brain is highly sensitive to experience. |
| Crystallized intelligence | Ability to use accumulated knowledge and experience. |
| Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) | Second messenger molecule involved in long-term potentiation. |
| Daytime sleepiness | Excessive drowsiness during the day, sign of sleep disorders. |
| Declarative memory | Long-term memory for facts and events that can be consciously recalled. |
| Deep brain stimulation (DBS) | Surgery using electrodes to treat Parkinson's, depression, or OCD. |
| Default mode network | Brain regions active when the mind is at rest. |
| Degeneration | Progressive loss of neuronal structure or function. |
| Delusions | False beliefs held despite contrary evidence, seen in psychosis. |
| Dementia | Decline in mental ability severe enough to interfere with daily life. |
| Dendrites | Neuron extensions that receive signals from other cells. |
| Dendritic spines | Protrusions on dendrites where excitatory synapses occur. |
| Dentate gyrus | Hippocampal region involved in new memories and neurogenesis. |
| Dependence | Adaptive state where body requires a drug to function normally. |
| Depolarization | Change in membrane potential making the neuron more likely to fire. |
| Depression | Mood disorder marked by persistent sadness and loss of interest. |
| Descending pathways | Circuits carrying motor signals from brain to spinal cord. |
| Designer drugs | Synthetic drugs made to mimic illegal substances while evading laws. |
| Deutetrabenazine | Drug used to treat Huntington's chorea. |
| Developmental neurobiology | Study of how the nervous system grows and matures. |
| Diabetic neuropathy | Nerve damage caused by high blood sugar. |
| Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) | MRI technique mapping white matter tracts via water diffusion. |
| Divided attention | Processing multiple tasks or stimuli simultaneously. |
| DNA sequencing | Determining the exact order of nucleotides in DNA. |
| Dominant mutations | Genetic changes where one copy of a gene causes a disorder. |
| Donepezil | Alzheimer's medication that inhibits cholinesterase. |
| Dopamine | Neurotransmitter for reward, motivation, and motor control. |
| Dorsal stream | "Where" visual pathway for spatial awareness and motion. |
| Dorsomedial prefrontal cortex | Region involved in social cognition and self-thought. |
| Down syndrome | Genetic disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21. |
| Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) | Fruit fly model used in genetics and neuroscience. |
| Dyskinesia | Involuntary, abnormal movements (common side effect of L-Dopa). |
| Dyslexia | Learning disorder affecting reading and phonological processing. |
| Dystonia | Disorder causing involuntary muscle contractions and twisting. |
| Eardrum (tympanic membrane) | Membrane that vibrates in response to sound waves. |
| Ectoderm | Outer embryonic layer that becomes the nervous system and skin. |
| Edaravone | ALS drug that reduces oxidative stress. |
| Electroencephalography (EEG) | Records brain electrical activity via scalp electrodes. |
| Electron microscopy | High-res imaging of synapses and organelles. |
| Electrophysiology | Study of the electrical properties of neurons. |
| Emotion | Complex state involving physical and psychological changes. |
| Emotional memory | Learning and remembering emotional responses (amygdala). |
| Endocrine system | Glands producing hormones for systemic regulation. |
| Endoderm | Inner embryonic layer; forms internal organs. |
| Endorphins | Natural opioids that inhibit pain and cause euphoria. |
| Entorhinal cortex | Hub for memory and navigation in the temporal lobe. |
| Ephrin | Proteins that guide axon growth during development. |
| Epidemiological studies | Study of health/disease patterns in populations. |
| Epigenetics | Changes in gene expression not involving DNA sequence changes. |
| Epilepsy | Disorder marked by recurrent, unprovoked seizures. |
| Epinephrine (adrenaline) | Hormone/neurotransmitter triggering fight-or-flight. |
| Episodic memory | Recollection of specific personal experiences. |
| Estrogen | Female sex hormone influencing plasticity and neuroprotection. |
| Ethanol | Active ingredient in alcohol; a CNS depressant. |
| Excitatory | Signal increasing the probability of a neuron firing. |
| Excitotoxicity | Neuron death caused by overactivation of excitatory receptors. |
| Executive function | High-level control (planning, inhibition) by the PFC. |
| Explicit memory | Conscious recollection of facts and experiences. |
| Extensors | Muscles that straighten a joint. |
| Familial ALS | Inherited form of motor neuron disease. |
| Fight-or-flight response | Physiological stress response to perceived threats. |
| Finches | Birds used to study vocal learning and brain plasticity. |
| Flavonoids | Plant compounds with potential neuroprotective effects. |
| Flexion | Bending a joint to decrease the angle between bones. |
| Flexion crossed extension reflex | Reflex where one limb withdraws and the other stabilizes. |
| Flexion withdrawal | Automatic pull-away from a painful stimulus. |
| Flexors | Muscles that bend a joint. |
| Fluid intelligence | Ability to solve new problems and identify patterns. |
| FMR | Gene associated with Fragile X syndrome. |
| Focal seizures | Seizures originating in a specific brain region. |
| Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) | Hormone regulating reproductive development. |
| Forebrain | Includes cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus. |
| Fovea | Central retina pit providing highest visual acuity. |
| Fragile X syndrome | Genetic condition causing intellectual disability. |
| Free radicals | Unstable molecules that cause oxidative damage. |
| Frequencies (pitches) | Sound wave cycles per second; perceived as pitch. |
| Frontal lobe | Brain region for executive function, movement, and personality. |
| Frontotemporal dementia | Nerve cell loss in frontal/temporal lobes; affects behavior/language. |
| Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) | Measures brain activity via blood flow/oxygen changes. |
| Galanin | Neuropeptide involved in sleep and pain. |
| Galantamine | Cholinesterase inhibitor for Alzheimer's. |
| Gamma motor neurons | Neurons controlling muscle spindle sensitivity. |
| Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) | The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. |
| Ganglion cells | Retinal neurons whose axons form the optic nerve. |
| Gene silencing | Preventing a gene from producing a protein. |
| Gene therapy | Inserting healthy genes to treat or prevent disease. |
| Generalized seizures | Seizures involving both brain hemispheres from the start. |
| Genes | DNA segments acting as blueprints for proteins. |
| Genetic linkage studies | Finding gene locations relative to markers. |
| GHB (gamma hydroxy-butyrate) | CNS depressant; club drug and date-rape drug. |
| Ghrelin | Hunger-signaling hormone from the stomach. |
| Glia | Support cells for neurons (astrocytes, microglia, etc.). |
| Glioblastoma | Malignant, aggressive brain tumor. |
| Gliomas | Tumors originating from glial cells. |
| Glossopharyngeal nerve | 9th cranial nerve; taste and swallowing. |
| Glucocerebrosidase (GBA) | Enzyme linked to Parkinson's risk when mutated. |
| Glucocorticoid hormones | Stress hormones like cortisol. |
| Glutamate | Primary excitatory neurotransmitter; vital for memory. |
| Golgi tendon organs | Receptors detecting muscle tension. |
| Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) | Hormone triggering reproductive hormone release. |
| Grand mal seizures | (Tonic-clonic) Seizures with loss of consciousness and convulsions. |
| Gray matter | Brain tissue made of cell bodies and dendrites. |
| Gray matter density | Concentration of neurons/glia in a region. |
| Grid cells | Entorhinal neurons creating a spatial coordinate system. |
| Grip force | Hand strength regulated by the motor cortex. |
| Growth cone | Tip of a developing axon that senses the environment. |
| Gustatory cortex | Region responsible for taste perception. |
| H.M. | Famous patient (Henry Molaison) who lost the ability to form new memories after hippocampal removal. |
| Habituation | A simple form of learning in which a repeated, harmless stimulus results in a diminished response. |
| Hair cells | Inner ear receptors detecting sound/balance. |
| Hallucinations | Sensory perceptions without external stimuli. |
| Hearing | The perception of sound. |
| Heart attack | Blockage of blood to the heart; can lead to vascular brain issues. |
| Hemineglect syndrome | Failure to attend to one side of space, usually after right parietal damage. |
| Heroin | Highly addictive opioid drug. |
| Herpes simplex virus | Virus that can cause encephalitis or be used as a viral vector. |
| High blood pressure | (Hypertension) Risk factor for stroke and dementia. |
| High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) | Technique to separate and identify components in a mixture. |
| Hindbrain | Includes cerebellum, pons, and medulla. |
| Hippocampus | Structure critical for new declarative memory formation. |
| Histamine | Involved in wakefulness and immune response. |
| Histology | Study of the microscopic structure of tissues. |
| HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) | Cognitive impairment caused by HIV infection. |
| Homeostasis | Maintenance of a stable internal environment. |
| Hormones | Chemical messengers released into the blood. |
| HTT gene | Gene that causes Huntington’s when mutated. |
| Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) | Virus that attacks the immune system and can enter the brain. |
| Huntingtin protein | Protein produced by the HTT gene; toxic when mutated. |
| Huntington’s disease (HD) | Fatal genetic disorder causing motor and cognitive decline. |
| Hydrocephalus | Buildup of cerebrospinal fluid in the brain ventricles. |
| Hyperalgesia | Increased sensitivity to pain. |
| Hyperphosphorylated tau protein | Abnormal tau protein that forms tangles in Alzheimer's. |
| Hyperpolarization | Membrane potential change making the neuron less likely to fire. |
| Hypertension | Chronically high blood pressure. |
| Hypnagogic hallucination | Hallucination occurring at the onset of sleep. |
| Hypnogram | Graph of sleep stages over time. |
| Hypomanic | A state of elevated mood less severe than full mania. |
| Hypothalamus | Regulates thirst, hunger, sleep, and temperature. |
| Hypothesis | A testable scientific explanation. |
| Immediate memory | Holding a small amount of info for a few seconds. |
| Immune system | Body's defense network; interacts with the CNS. |
| Immunotherapy | Using the immune system to treat diseases like cancer. |
| Implicit memory | Unconscious memory for skills and habits. |
| Incus (anvil) | One of the three middle ear ossicles. |
| Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells | Reprogrammed adult cells that can become any cell type. |
| Inflammatory responses | Immune reaction to injury; can be chronic in brain disease. |
| Inhibitory interneurons | Local neurons that release GABA to dampen activity. |
| Inhibitory neurons | Neurons that decrease the likelihood of postsynaptic firing. |
| Inner ear | Contains cochlea and vestibular organs. |
| Insomnia | Persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep. |
| Insula | Folded cortex region involved in interoception and emotion. |
| Insular cortex | (Insula) Processes sensory signals from within the body. |
| Interneurons | Neurons communicating only with other nearby neurons. |
| Intranasal delivery | Method of delivering drugs to the brain via the nose. |
| Involuntary (autonomic) nervous systems | Controls unconscious bodily functions. |
| Involuntary (exogenous) attention | Attention captured automatically by a stimulus. |
| Involuntary movements | Movements made without conscious intent (e.g., tremors). |
| Ion channels | Pore-forming proteins allowing ions to cross the membrane. |
| Iris | Colored part of the eye regulating light entry. |
| Itch | Sensation prompting a desire to scratch; distinct from pain. |
| Jet lag | Disruption of circadian rhythms by rapid travel across time zones. |
| Joint receptors | Receptors in joints detecting limb position. |
| Joints | Points where bones meet; contain proprioceptive receptors. |
| Ketamine | Anesthetic/antidepressant; NMDA receptor antagonist. |
| Ketogenic diet | High-fat, low-carb diet used to treat refractory epilepsy. |
| Knee jerk | Simple spinal reflex (stretch reflex). |
| Korsakoff’s syndrome | Memory disorder caused by Vitamin B1 deficiency. |
| Language | System of communication using symbols and sounds. |
| Lateral geniculate nucleus | Thalamic relay station for visual information. |
| Lateral habenula | Region involved in negative reward and depression. |
| Lateral hypothalamus | Involved in hunger and wakefulness. |
| Lateral inhibition | Process sharpening sensory perception by inhibiting neighbors. |
| Lateral prefrontal cortex | Involved in executive function and working memory. |
| Learning | Acquiring new information or skills. |
| Lens | Eye structure that focuses light onto the retina. |
| Lentivirus | A type of virus used for long-term gene delivery in research. |
| Leptin | Hormone signaling satiety (fullness). |
| Lesions | Areas of tissue damage. |
| Levodopa (L-Dopa) | Dopamine precursor used to treat Parkinson's. |
| Lewy body | Clumps of alpha-synuclein found in Parkinson's. |
| Limbic system | Brain network for emotion and memory. |
| Longitudinal studies | Research following the same subjects over a long time. |
| Long-term depression (LTD) | Long-lasting decrease in synaptic strength. |
| Long-term memory | Permanent storage of information. |
| Long-term potentiation (LTP) | Persistent strengthening of synapses; basis for learning. |
| Lou Gehrig’s disease (ALS) | Progressive motor neuron degeneration. |
| Lumbar puncture | (Spinal tap) Procedure to collect CSF. |
| Luteinizing hormone (LH) | Triggers ovulation or testosterone production. |
| Machine-learning | Using algorithms to find patterns in large neuroscience datasets. |
| Macula | Area of retina for central, high-resolution vision. |
| Macular degeneration | Vision loss caused by damage to the macula. |
| Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) | Uses magnets to image brain structure. |
| Magnetoencephalography (MEG) | Measures magnetic fields produced by brain activity. |
| Major depression | Mood disorder with persistent sadness/loss of interest. |
| Malignant | Cancerous; likely to spread or grow aggressively. |
| Malleus (hammer) | Middle ear bone that connects to the eardrum. |
| Manic | State of elevated energy and mood in bipolar disorder. |
| Marijuana | Drug containing THC; acts on cannabinoid receptors. |
| Mass spectrometry | Technique used to identify proteins or chemicals in the brain. |
| MDMA (Ecstasy/Molly) | Psychoactive drug affecting serotonin. |
| Medial prefrontal cortex | Involved in social cognition and decision making. |
| Medial temporal lobe | Region containing hippocampus; crucial for memory. |
| Median eminence | Area where the hypothalamus releases hormones into the blood. |
| Medulla | Brainstem part controlling heart rate and breathing. |
| Medulla oblongata | (Medulla) Lower brainstem controlling vital functions. |
| Megalencephaly | Abnormally large brain size. |
| Melanin-concentrating hormone | Neuropeptide involved in sleep and appetite. |
| Melatonin | Hormone regulating sleep-wake cycles. |
| Memantine | Alzheimer's drug that blocks certain NMDA receptors. |
| Membrane potential | Voltage difference across a neuron's membrane. |
| Memory | Storage and retrieval of information. |
| Memory consolidation | Stabilizing a memory trace after initial acquisition. |
| Meninges | Three protective membranes surrounding the brain. |
| Meningioma | Generally benign tumor of the meninges. |
| Menstrual cycle | Monthly hormonal cycle affecting brain chemistry. |
| Mentalizing | Understanding the mental states of others (Theory of Mind). |
| Mesoderm | Embryonic layer that becomes muscles and bones. |
| Mesolimbic pathway | Dopamine reward pathway (VTA to nucleus accumbens). |
| Metabolic stressors | Factors that disrupt the brain's energy balance. |
| Metabolism | Chemical processes maintaining life. |
| Metabotropic receptors | Receptors acting through second messengers (slower). |
| Metastatic brain tumors | Cancer that spread to the brain from elsewhere. |
| Methamphetamine | Highly addictive dopamine-releasing stimulant. |
| Methylphenidate | (Ritalin) Stimulant used to treat ADHD. |
| Methylprednisolone | Steroid used to treat acute spinal cord injury inflammation. |
| Microarrays | Tool to study the expression of thousands of genes at once. |
| Microcephaly | Abnormally small brain size. |
| Microdialysis | Technique to measure neurotransmitters in a living brain. |
| Microglia | Brain's immune cells; clear debris and fight infection. |
| Microtubules | Structural filaments inside neurons stabilized by tau. |
| Midbrain | Part of brainstem for visual/auditory reflexes. |
| Middle ear | Chamber containing the ossicles. |
| Migration | Movement of new neurons to their final brain location. |
| Mild cognitive impairment | Transitional stage between normal aging and dementia. |
| Mitochondria | Organelles that produce ATP (energy) for the cell. |
| Mitochondrial DNA | DNA found in mitochondria, inherited from the mother. |
| Mood | Long-term emotional state. |
| Mood disorders | Category including depression and bipolar disorder. |
| Morphine | Opioid painkiller derived from poppies. |
| Motivations | Internal states that drive behavior toward goals. |
| Motor cortex | Brain area for planning/executing movement. |
| Motor neurons | Neurons that signal muscles to contract. |
| Motor unit | One motor neuron and the muscle fibers it controls. |
| Movements | Result of muscle contractions coordinated by the brain. |
| MPTP | Neurotoxin that causes Parkinsonian symptoms. |
| Multiple sclerosis (MS) | Autoimmune attack on CNS myelin. |
| Muscle fibers | Cells that make up skeletal muscle. |
| Muscle spindles | Receptors that detect muscle stretch. |
| Muscles | Tissues that contract to produce movement. |
| Mutations | Changes in the DNA sequence. |
| Myelin | Fatty insulation on axons. |
| Myelin sheath | Protective wrap that speeds up neural signals. |
| Myelination | Process of forming myelin around axons. |
| Naloxone | Opioid antagonist that reverses overdose. |
| Narcolepsy | Disorder of sudden sleep onset and daytime sleepiness. |
| Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) | Using light to monitor brain oxygen levels. |
| Negative feedback loops | Control systems where the output inhibits the process (e.g., hormones). |
| Neocortex | The newest part of the cerebral cortex in evolution. |
| Nerve growth factor | Protein that supports neuron survival. |
| Nerve ring | Simple nervous system found in organisms like jellyfish. |
| Netrin | Molecule that guides growing axons. |
| Neural induction | Embryonic process signaling ectoderm to become nerve tissue. |
| Neural plate | Embryonic structure that folds into the neural tube. |
| Neural tube | Embryonic precursor to the CNS. |
| Neurite outgrowth inhibitor | (Nogo) Protein preventing axon regrowth in CNS. |
| Neuritic plaques | (Amyloid plaques) Extracellular protein clumps in Alzheimer's. |
| Neurodegenerative diseases | Disorders involving progressive neuron loss. |
| Neuroeconomics | Study of brain mechanisms underlying decision making. |
| Neuroendocrine hormones | Hormones released by neurons into the blood. |
| Neuroendocrine system | Intersection of the nervous and endocrine systems. |
| Neuroethics | Ethics of neuroscience research and application. |
| Neurofibrillary tangles | Intracellular tau clumps in Alzheimer's. |
| Neurogenesis | Birth of new neurons. |
| Neuroimaging | Techniques like MRI, PET, and CT to see the brain. |
| Neurolaw | Intersection of neuroscience and legal issues. |
| Neuroleptic | Another term for antipsychotic medication. |
| Neurologist | Physician specializing in the nervous system. |
| Neuromodulators | Chemicals that tune the strength of synaptic signaling. |
| Neuromuscular junction | Synapse between motor neuron and muscle. |
| Neurons | Nerve cells; primary units of the nervous system. |
| Neuropathic pain | Pain caused by nerve damage rather than injury. |
| Neuropeptides | Short chains of amino acids that act as messengers. |
| Neuroplasticity | Brain's ability to change structure and function. |
| Neuroprostheses | Devices that replace or enhance lost nervous system function. |
| Neurotoxicity | Damage to the nervous system by toxic substances. |
| Neurotransmitters | Chemical messengers in the synapse. |
| Neurotrophic factors | Proteins (like NGF, BDNF) supporting neuron growth. |
| Neurotrophins | Class of proteins that regulate neuron survival. |
| Nicotine | Stimulant in tobacco; binds to acetylcholine receptors. |
| Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors | Type of acetylcholine receptor that also binds nicotine. |
| NMDA receptor antagonist | Drug that blocks NMDA receptors (e.g., ketamine). |
| N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor | Glutamate receptor critical for synaptic plasticity. |
| Nociceptors | Sensory receptors for painful stimuli. |
| Nodes of Ranvier | Gaps in myelin where action potentials are regenerated. |
| Non-REM sleep | Sleep stages 1-3; slow wave sleep. |
| Nondeclarative memory | Implicit memory for skills/habits. |
| Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) | Painkillers that reduce inflammation (e.g., ibuprofen). |
| Norepinephrine | Neurotransmitter for arousal and "fight-or-flight." |
| Nucleus accumbens | Reward center of the brain. |
| Nystagmus | Involuntary eye movement. |
| Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) | Disorder of intrusive thoughts and repetitive rituals. |
| Occipital lobes | Posterior brain lobes for vision. |
| Occipitotemporal cortex | Involved in object and face recognition. |
| Olfactory bulbs | Brain structures for processing smell. |
| Olfactory cortex | Region for perceiving odors. |
| Oligodendrocytes | CNS glia that create myelin. |
| Oligonucleotide | Short DNA/RNA strand used in gene-silencing therapy. |
| Omega- fatty acids | (Omega-3) Nutrients important for brain health. |
| Opioid receptors | Receptors for endorphins and painkillers. |
| Opioids | Drugs that relieve pain; highly addictive. |
| Optic chiasm | Where optic nerves cross to opposite hemispheres. |
| Optic nerve | Transmits visual info to the brain. |
| Optogenetics | Using light to control genetically modified neurons. |
| Orexin | Neuropeptide that maintains wakefulness; lost in narcolepsy. |
| Orexin neurons | Cells in the hypothalamus that regulate arousal. |
| Osteoporosis | Bone weakening; relevant to hormone/aging studies. |
| Oval window | Membrane where ear bones transmit vibrations to the cochlea. |
| Oxidative damage | Cell damage caused by reactive oxygen species. |
| Oxidative stress | Imbalance of free radicals and antioxidants. |
| Oxytocin | "Bonding" hormone; involved in trust and social behavior. |
| Pacinian corpuscle | Skin receptor for vibration/pressure. |
| Pain | Sensory/emotional experience of tissue damage. |
| Panic disorder | Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks. |
| Papillae | Bumps on tongue containing taste buds. |
| Parahippocampal region | Cortex around the hippocampus; involved in memory. |
| Paralysis | Loss of muscle function. |
| Paranoia | Distrust or false belief of being persecuted. |
| Parasympathetic branch | "Rest and digest" part of the autonomic system. |
| Paraventricular nucleus | Hypothalamic region involved in stress and fluid balance. |
| Parietal lobes | Process touch, spatial awareness, and navigation. |
| Parkin | Gene associated with early-onset Parkinson's. |
| Parkinson’s disease | Motor disorder caused by loss of dopamine neurons. |
| Partial seizures | (Focal) Seizures restricted to one part of the brain. |
| Passive immunization | Giving antibodies directly to a patient. |
| Perception | Organizing and interpreting sensory info. |
| Periaqueductal gray | Midbrain area central to pain suppression. |
| Peripheral neuropathy | Damage to nerves outside the CNS (numbness/pain). |
| Perirhinal cortex | Involved in object recognition. |
| Petit mal seizures | Old term for absence seizures. |
| Phagocytes | Cells that engulf debris (like microglia). |
| Pharmacology | Study of drug actions on the body. |
| Photoreceptors | Light-detecting cells (rods/cones). |
| Pineal gland | Secretes melatonin. |
| Pituitary gland | Master gland releasing systemic hormones. |
| Place cells | Hippocampal neurons for location tracking. |
| Plaques | Protein clumps outside neurons (Alzheimer's). |
| Plasticity | Brain's capacity for change. |
| Polygraph tests | "Lie detectors" measuring autonomic arousal. |
| Pons | Brainstem bridge involved in sleep/breathing. |
| Positron emission tomography (PET) | Imaging using radioactive tracers for metabolic activity. |
| Posterior cingulate cortex | Part of the default mode network. |
| Postsynaptic neuron | Neuron receiving the signal at a synapse. |
| Post-traumatic epilepsy | Seizures developing after a head injury. |
| Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) | Anxiety disorder following a traumatic event. |
| Precuneus | Part of the parietal lobe involved in self-consciousness. |
| Predictive neuroimaging | Using scans to predict future disease or behavior. |
| Prefrontal cortex (PFC) | Frontal region for decision making and personality. |
| Premotor cortex | Area for planning movement sequences. |
| Presynaptic neuron | Neuron sending the signal at a synapse. |
| Primary auditory cortex | First processor of sound in the temporal lobe. |
| Primary brain tumor | Tumor that originated in the brain tissue. |
| Primary motor cortex | Initiates voluntary muscle movements. |
| Primary somatosensory cortex | Processes touch information. |
| Primary visual cortex | First processor of vision in the occipital lobe. |
| Primary-progressive MS | Form of MS with steady decline from the start. |
| Prions | Misfolded proteins that cause infectious brain diseases. |
| Procedural memory | Implicit memory for skills. |
| Processing speed | How fast the brain handles information. |
| Progenitor cells | Cells that can divide into neurons or glia. |
| Progesterone | Sex hormone with neuroprotective properties. |
| Projection fibers | Axons connecting the cortex to lower brain areas. |
| Proliferation | Rapid production of new cells during development. |
| Propagation | Movement of action potential down an axon. |
| Proprioception | Sense of body position. |
| Prosopagnosia (face blindness) | Inability to recognize faces. |
| Prostaglandins | Chemicals that signal inflammation and pain. |
| Pruning | Eliminating unused synapses. |
| PSEN | Genes (Presenilin) linked to early-onset Alzheimer's. |
| Psychosis | Loss of contact with reality. |
| Psychostimulants | Drugs that increase mental/physical activity. |
| Pupil | Hole in the iris that lets light in. |
| Quadriplegic | Person paralyzed in all four limbs. |
| Radioactive chemical marker | Tracer used in imaging (PET) to show brain activity. |
| Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep | High-activity sleep stage with dreaming. |
| Receptive field | Specific area of space that a sensory neuron responds to. |
| Receptors | Proteins that bind neurotransmitters. |
| Recessive mutations | Mutations requiring two copies to cause disease. |
| Reciprocal inhibition | When one muscle contracts, its opposite relaxes. |
| Recreational drugs | Drugs used for non-medical pleasure. |
| Reflexes | Automatic muscle responses. |
| Regeneration | Regrowth of damaged nerves. |
| Rehabilitation | Therapies to restore function. |
| Relapsing-remitting MS | MS with flare-ups and recoveries. |
| REM sleep behavior disorder | Failure of atonia, causing one to act out dreams. |
| REM sleep generator | Brainstem circuits that trigger REM sleep. |
| Repeat kinase (LRRK-) | (LRRK2) Gene associated with Parkinson's risk. |
| Repetition | Learning strategy of repeated exposure. |
| Reproduction | Biological process controlled by hypothalamus/pituitary. |
| Resilience factors | Traits or biological markers that protect against stress/disease. |
| Resting potential | Neuron charge when inactive (~-70mV). |
| Resting tremor | Shaking that occurs when muscles are at rest (Parkinson's). |
| Reticular activating system | Brainstem network for arousal. |
| Retina | Eye layer that converts light to signals. |
| Retinal ganglion cells | Neurons forming the optic nerve. |
| Retrieval | Accessing stored memories. |
| Rett syndrome | Genetic disorder affecting brain development (primarily in girls). |
| Reuptake | Reabsorbing neurotransmitters into the sending neuron. |
| Reward system | Circuits for pleasure and reinforcement (dopamine). |
| Ribonucleic acid (RNA) | Molecule translating DNA to protein. |
| Right parietal cortex | Involved in spatial attention. |
| Riluzole | Drug that slows ALS progression. |
| Rivastigmine | Cholinesterase inhibitor for Alzheimer's/Parkinson's dementia. |
| RNA-guided enzymes | Tools (like Cas9) for gene editing. |
| Rods | Light-sensitive receptors for night vision. |
| Rohypnol | Strong sedative used as a date-rape drug. |
| Saltatory conduction | Fast signaling in myelinated axons (jumping). |
| Schizophrenia | Severe disorder of thought and perception. |
| Schwann cells | PNS glia producing myelin. |
| Sclerosis | Scarring or hardening of tissue (as in MS). |
| Second messengers | Intracellular molecules signaling after a receptor is bound. |
| Secondary generalized seizures | Focal seizures that spread to the whole brain. |
| Secondary-progressive MS | Stage of MS after RRMS with steady decline. |
| Selective attention | Focusing on one thing while ignoring others. |
| Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) | Antidepressants that increase serotonin. |
| Semantic memory | Memory for general facts/knowledge. |
| Semaphorin | Molecule that repels growing axons to guide them. |
| Sensory receptors | Cells that detect physical stimuli. |
| Serotonin | Neurotransmitter for mood, sleep, and appetite. |
| Shaking | (Tremor) Involuntary rhythmic movement. |
| Short-term memory | Holds small info for a brief time. |
| Signal-to-noise ratio | Strength of signal vs background noise. |
| Skeletal muscles | Muscles attached to bone for voluntary movement. |
| Sleep | State of reduced consciousness for brain maintenance. |
| Sleep apnea | Breathing stops during sleep. |
| Slow wave sleep (SWS) | (Deep sleep) Stage 3 non-REM sleep. |
| Smell (olfaction) | Chemical sense of odors. |
| Social neuroscience | Study of brain basis of social interaction. |
| SOD | (SOD1) Gene mutation that causes a form of familial ALS. |
| Soma | Neuron cell body. |
| Somatic (voluntary) nervous system | Voluntary control of muscles. |
| Somatosensory cortex | Processes touch and body position. |
| Sonic hedgehog | Protein guiding developmental patterning. |
| Spatial memory | Memory for environment and layout. |
| Spatial neglect | (Hemineglect) Ignoring one side of the world. |
| Speech | Vocalized language production. |
| Spinal circuits | Neural paths in the spinal cord for reflexes/walking. |
| Spinal cord | Main communication path between brain and body. |
| Split-brain surgery | Cutting the corpus callosum to treat epilepsy. |
| Sporadic ALS | Form of ALS with no clear family history. |
| Squirrel monkeys | Primates used to study motor recovery and vision. |
| Stapes (stirrup) | Tiny bone in the middle ear. |
| Stem cells | Cells that can become neurons or glia. |
| Stereocilia | Hair-like structures in the ear that detect sound waves. |
| Stereotactic radiosurgery | Precise radiation to treat brain tumors. |
| Steroid | Hormones like cortisol or testosterone. |
| Stimulants | Drugs increasing CNS activity. |
| Strabismus | Misaligned eyes ("cross-eyed"). |
| Strength | Force production by muscles. |
| Stress | Body's reaction to pressure or threat. |
| Stress response | Activation of the HPA axis and sympathetic system. |
| Stretch (myotatic) reflex | Muscle contraction in response to being stretched. |
| Striatum | Basal ganglia part for motor habits/reward. |
| Stroke | Brain damage from blood flow loss. |
| Substantia nigra | Origin of dopamine for the basal ganglia. |
| Sulcus | Groove in the cerebral cortex. |
| Superoxide dismutase | Enzyme that neutralizes superoxide free radicals. |
| Superoxide radicals | Toxic free radicals that can damage neurons. |
| Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) | The brain's master circadian clock. |
| Supraoptic nuclei | Hypothalamic region for hormone release. |
| Superior colliculus | Midbrain structure orienting eyes/head. |
| Sympathetic branch | "Fight-or-flight" system. |
| Synapse | Communication gap between neurons. |
| Synaptic cleft | Gap between neurons at a synapse. |
| Synaptic density | Number of synapses in a specific brain volume. |
| Synaptic plasticity | Change in synapse strength. |
| Synaptic pruning | Natural removal of redundant synapses. |
| Synaptic vesicles | Sacs storing neurotransmitters. |
| Synaptogenesis | Formation of new synapses. |
| Tangles | (Neurofibrillary) Tau clumps inside neurons in Alzheimer's. |
| Targeted treatments | Therapies designed for specific genetic or molecular causes. |
| Taste (gustation) | Chemical sense of flavor. |
| Taste buds | Sensory organs on the tongue. |
| Tau | Protein that stabilizes microtubules; toxic in Alzheimer's. |
| Tectorial membrane | Membrane in the cochlea that hair cells brush against. |
| Tectum | Roof of the midbrain. |
| Temporal lobes | Lobes for hearing, language, and memory. |
| Testosterone | Male sex hormone affecting brain and behavior. |
| Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) | Psychoactive compound in marijuana. |
| Thalamus | Sensory relay station. |
| Theory of mind | Understanding others' mental states. |
| Thiamine | Vitamin B1; deficiency causes Korsakoff's. |
| Thin spines | Small dendritic spines often related to new learning. |
| Threshold | Depolarization level triggering action potential. |
| Tinnitus | Ringing in the ears. |
| Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) | Drug that dissolves blood clots in stroke. |
| Tobacco | Plant containing nicotine. |
| Tolerance | Need for more of a drug to get the same effect. |
| TOMM | (TOMM40) Gene associated with Alzheimer's risk. |
| Tonic-clonic seizures | Major seizure with loss of consciousness and shaking. |
| Touch | Perception of pressure/contact on the skin. |
| Touch receptors | Mechanoreceptors in the skin. |
| Tourette’s syndrome | Disorder of involuntary tics (vocal/motor). |
| Tracers | Chemicals used to map neural paths or activity. |
| Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) | Using alternating current to modulate brain activity. |
| Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) | Using direct current to stimulate the brain. |
| Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) | Using magnets to stimulate or inhibit brain regions. |
| Transcription factors | Proteins controlling gene expression. |
| Transduction | Converting physical stimuli (light/sound) into neural signals. |
| Traumatic brain injuries (TBI) | Brain damage from head impact. |
| TREM | (TREM2) Gene related to the brain's immune response in Alzheimer's. |
| Tremor | Involuntary shaking. |
| Tricyclic antidepressants | Older class of antidepressants blocking reuptake. |
| Trinucleotide | DNA sequence of three nucleotides; repeats cause disease (e.g., HD). |
| Trophic factors | Growth-promoting proteins. |
| Two-photon microscopy | Imaging live brain tissue deep within the cortex. |
| Two-point discrimination | Ability to feel two distinct points on the skin. |
| Tympanic membrane (eardrum) | The eardrum. |
| UBQLN | (UBQLN2) Gene linked to some forms of ALS/FTD. |
| Umami | Savory taste. |
| Undifferentiated cells | Stem cells that haven't become a specific type yet. |
| Unilateral neglect | Failure to see or respond to one side of the world. |
| Unmyelinated axons | Axons without myelin; slower conduction. |
| Upper brainstem | Region involved in wakefulness and eye movements. |
| Vagus nerves | Nerves for autonomic control of heart/gut. |
| Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) | Protein that promotes new blood vessel growth. |
| Vectors | Modified viruses used to deliver genes. |
| Ventral stream | "What" visual pathway (object recognition). |
| Ventral tegmental area (VTA) | Midbrain dopamine source for reward. |
| Ventricles | Fluid-filled cavities in the brain. |
| Ventricular zone | Area where new neurons are born in the embryo. |
| Ventrolateral preoptic (VLPO) nucleus | Hypothalamic nucleus that promotes sleep. |
| Ventromedial prefrontal cortex | Region for emotional regulation and decision making. |
| Vestibular system | Sensory system for balance. |
| Vision | The sense of sight. |
| Visual acuity | Sharpness of vision. |
| Visual cortex | Occipital lobe region processing vision. |
| Visual fields | The total area one can see when eyes are fixed. |
| Voluntary (endogenous) attention | Consciously choosing what to focus on. |
| Voluntary (somatic) nervous systems | Controls skeletal muscles. |
| Voluntary movement | Conscious muscle control. |
| Wakefulness | State of alertness. |
| Wernicke’s aphasia | Condition of fluent but nonsensical speech. |
| Wernicke’s area | Temporal region for language comprehension. |
| White matter | Axon bundles (myelinated). |
| Withdrawal | Symptoms occurring when stopping an addictive drug. |
| Womb | Environment where fetal brain development begins. |
| Word-form area | Brain region specialized for recognizing written words. |
| Working memory | Holding and using info "online" for tasks. |
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