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Psychology Chp.9-10
chapters 9-10
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Physical development | biological growth, maturation, and refinement of motor skills, bodily control, and physical health from birth through adolescence |
| cognitive development | growth in intellectual and mental abilities, including thinking, reasoning, memory, and problem-solving, from infancy through adulthood |
| psychosocial development | social, cultural, and environmental influences |
| normative approach | the typical, expected, and age-related patterns of physical, cognitive, and social-emotional growth that most individuals experience within a culture |
| developmental milestones | age-related averages as general guidelines to compare children with same-age peers to determine the approximate ages they should reach specific normative events |
| continuous development | views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills, there is gradual change. Consider, for example, a child’s physical growth: adding inches to height year by year. |
| discontinuous development | development takes place in unique stages: It occurs at specific times or ages, the change is more sudden, such as an infant’s ability to conceive object permanence. |
| Nature versus nurture debate | Are we who we are because of nature (biology and genetics), or are we who we are because of nurture (our environment and culture) |
| psychosexual development | Sigmund Freud believed that personality develops during early childhood. For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults. Freud viewed development as discontinuous; |
| psychosocial theory | emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than its sexual nature. Erikson proposed that personality development takes place all through life |
| ego identity | Erikson suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or what he called the ego identity |
| Stage 1/ 0-1 /Trust vs. Mistrust | basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met |
| Stage 2/ 1-3 /Autonomy vs. shame/doubt | Develop a sense of independence in many tasks |
| Stage 3/ 3-6 /Initiative vs. guilt | Take initiative on some activities—may develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped |
| Stage 4/ 7-11 /industry vs. inferiority | Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not |
| Stage 5 /12-18/ identity vs. confusion | Experiment with and develop identity and roles |
| Stage 6/ 19-29/ intimacy vs. isolation | Establish intimacy and relationships with others |
| Stage 7 /30-64/ Generativity vs. stagnation | Contribute to society and be part of a family |
| Stage 8/ 65 and older/ integrity vs. despair | Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions |
| Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development | children move through four distinct, age-related stages—sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational |
| assimilation | is when they take in information that is comparable to what they already know. |
| Accommodation | describes when they change their schemata based on new information. This process continues as children interact with their environment |
| 0-2 Sensorimotor | World experienced through senses and actions (object permanence, stranger anxiety) |
| (2-6) Preoperational | Use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning and conservation (Pretend play, ego, language development) |
| (7-11) Concrete operational | Understand concrete events and analogies logically; perform arithmetical operations (Conservation Mathematical transformations) |
| object permanence | the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists |
| Stranger anxiety | results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema; therefore, she can’t predict what her experience with that stranger will be like, which results in a fear response. |
| conservation | which is the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added. |
| egocentrism | A child is not able to take the perspective of others. |
| reversibility | objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition. |
| Formal operational thought | According to Piaget, the highest level of cognitive development is formal operational thought, which develops between 11 and 20 years old |
| Post formal stage | decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts |
| sociocultural theory of development (Lev Vygotsky) | human development is rooted in one’s culture. A child’s social world, for example, forms the basis for the formation of language and thought. The language one speaks and the ways a person thinks about things are dependent on one’s cultural background. |
| Moral Theory of Development | proposes that individuals progress through three levels (preconventional, conventional, post-conventional) and six sequential stages of moral reasoning based on cognitive growth |
| prenatal development | From beginning as a one-cell structure to your birth, your prenatal development occurred in an orderly and delicate sequence. |
| Germinal stage (weeks 1-2) | DNA is passed on to the child at the moment of conception. (Conception occurs when sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote) |
| Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3–8) | the zygote becomes a ~150-cell organism, moves to the uterus, and implants in the lining, becoming an embryo |
| Fetal Stage (Weeks 9–40) | When the organism is about nine weeks old, the embryo is called a fetus. At this stage, the fetus is about the size of a kidney bean and begins to take on the recognizable form of a human being as the “tail” begins to disappear. |
| teratogen | any environmental agent—biological, chemical, or physical—that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus. There are different types of teratogens. Alcohol and most drugs cross the placenta and affect the fetus. |
| critical or sensitive period | Each organ of the fetus develops during a specific period in the pregnancy |
| newborn reflexes | inborn automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation. Reflexes help the newborn survive until it is capable of more complex behaviors. They are present in babies whose brains are developing normally and usually disappear around 4–5 months old. |
| rooting reflex | the newborn’s response to anything that touches their cheek |
| grasping reflex | a baby automatically grasps anything that touches the palms. |
| The Moro reflex | is the newborn’s response to the sensation of falling. The baby spreads the arms, pulls them back in |
| neurogenesis | (the formation of neurons) can continue through adulthood. However, the vast majority of neural connections and pathways occur during the first few years of a child’s life |
| blooming | period of rapid neural growth. Occurs during the first few years of life |
| pruning | neural connections are reduced. It is thought that pruning causes the brain to function more efficiently, allowing for mastery of more complex skills. Continues through childhood and into adolescence in various areas of the brain. |
| Motor development | occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reflexive reactions (e.g., sucking and rooting) to more advanced motor functioning. |
| Motor skills | refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects |
| Fine motor skills | focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions (e.g., grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon) |
| Gross motor skills | focus on large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements (e.g., balancing, running, and jumping) |
| theory-of-mind (TOM) | Between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own |
| vocabulary spurt | During the early childhood years, children's vocabulary increases at a rapid pace. Claimed to involve an expansion in vocabulary at a rate of 10–20 new words per week (not universal) |
| Language acquisition | we are all born with an innate capacity to learn language,partially inborn and partially learned through our interactions with our linguistic environment (Noam Chomsky) |
| Attachment | long-standing connection or bond with others. (the main psychosocial milestone of infancy) |
| attachment theory | affectional bond or tie that an infant forms with the mother. An infant must form this bond with a primary caregiver in order to have normal social and emotional development. (John Bowlby) |
| mother-child bond | Feelings of comfort and security are the critical components to maternal-infant bonding, which leads to healthy psychosocial development. (Harry Harlow) |
| secure base | a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety in his surroundings.The caregiver must be responsive to the child’s physical, social, and emotional needs; and the caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions (Bowlby) |
| secure attachment (Mary Ainsworth) | this type of attachment, the toddler prefers his parent over a stranger. |
| avoidant attachment (Mary Ainsworth) | the child is unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves |
| resistant attachment (Mary Ainsworth) | mix of clinginess and rejection toward their caregiver, often becoming too fearful to explore. They experience extreme distress during separation and remain angry or difficult to comfort upon reunion, caused by inconsistent parental responsiveness. |
| positive sense of self | the primary psychosocial milestone of childhood is the development of |
| Temperament | innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment |
| Adolescence | is the period of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood |
| Adrenarche | adrenal glands |
| Gonadarche | sex glands |
| Primary sexual characteristics | organs specifically needed for reproduction, like the uterus and ovaries and testes. |
| Secondary sexual characteristics | physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs, such as development of breasts and hips, and development of facial hair and a deepened voice. |
| Menarche | beginning of menstrual periods, usually occurs around 12–13 years old |
| spermarche | first ejaculation, around 13–14 years old. |
| emerging adulthood | spanning from 18 years old to the mid-20s, characterized as an in-between time where identity exploration is focused on work and love |
| Boomerang Generation | describes recent college graduates for whom lack of adequate employment upon college graduation often leads to a return to the parental home |
| Adulthood | begins around 20 years old and has three distinct stages: early, middle, and late. Each stage brings its own set of rewards and challenges |
| crystallized intelligence | information, skills, and strategies we have gathered through a lifetime of experience |
| fluid intelligence | information processing abilities, reasoning, and memory |
| socioemotional selectivity theory | suggests that our social support and friendships dwindle in number, but remain as close, if not more close than in our earlier years |
| Elizabeth Ross proposed five stages of grief | denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. |
| living will or advance directive | which is a written legal document that details specific interventions a person wants. For example, a person in the last stages of a terminal illness may not want to receive life-extending treatments |
| Do Not Resuscitate (DNR) | Order, which they would share with family and close friends. A DNR Order states that if a person stops breathing or their heart stops beating, medical personnel such as doctors and nurses are not to take steps to revive or resuscitate the patient. |
| health care proxy | appoints a specific person to make medical decisions for you if you are unable to speak for yourself. People’s desire for living wills and DNRs are often influenced by their religion, culture, and upbringing. |
| intrinsic | (arising from internal factors) motivated behaviors are performed because of the sense of personal satisfaction that they bring |
| extrinsic | (arising from external factors) behaviors are performed in order to receive something from others. |
| overjustification effect | intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation is given. This can lead to extinguishing the intrinsic motivation and creating a dependence on extrinsic rewards for continued performance |
| William James | an important contributor to early research into motivation, and he is often referred to as the father of psychology in the United States |
| drive theory of motivation | deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs. These needs result in psychological drive states that direct behavior to meet the need and, ultimately, bring the system back to homeostasis |
| arousal theory | individuals are motivated to maintain an optimal level of physiological and psychological activation, actively increasing stimulation when bored and decreasing it when overstimulated to achieve peak performance and comfort |
| Yerkes-Dodson law | holds that a simple task is performed best when arousal levels are relatively high and complex tasks are best performed when arousal levels are lower. |
| Self-efficacy | an individual’s belief in their own capability to complete a task, which may include a previous successful completion of the exact task or a similar task. (plays a role in motivating behavior) |
| hierarchy of needs (Abraham Maslow) | spans the spectrum of motives ranging from the biological to the individual to the social. These needs are often depicted as a pyramid |
| leptin | The food’s passage through the gastrointestinal tract also provides important satiety signals to the brain), and fat cells release leptin, a satiety hormone. |
| metabolic rate | amount of energy that is expended in a given period of time, and there is tremendous individual variability in our metabolic rates. |
| set-point theory | asserts that each individual has an ideal body weight, or set point, which is resistant to change. This set-point is genetically predetermined and efforts to move our weight significantly from the set-point |
| overweight | an adult with a body mass index (BMI) between 25 and 29.9 |
| obese | An adult with a BMI of 30 or higher |
| Severe obesity | People who are so overweight that they are at risk for death are classified as severely obese, having a BMI over 40. |
| Bariatric surgery | a type of surgery specifically aimed at weight reduction, and it involves modifying the gastrointestinal system to reduce the amount of food that can be eaten and/or limiting how much of the digested food can be absorbed |
| Kinsey reports | Never before had the American public seen its private sexual behavior become the focus of scientific scrutiny on such a large scale. The books, which were filled with statistics and scientific lingo, sold remarkably well to the general public |
| sexual orientation | which is an individual’s emotional, romantic, and erotic attractions to other people or no people |
| excitement | phase is the arousal phase of the sexual response cycle, and it is marked by erection of the penis or clitoris and lubrication and expansion of the vaginal canal. |
| plateau | the vagina swells further and blood flow to the labia minora increases, and the penis becomes fully erect and may exhibit pre-ejaculatory fluid. People experience increases in muscle tone during this time. |
| Orgasm | rhythmic contractions of the pelvis and uterus along with increased muscle tension. In males, pelvic contractions are accompanied by a buildup of seminal fluid near the urethra that is ultimately forced out by contractions of genital muscles |
| Resolution | s the relatively rapid return to an unaroused state accompanied by a decrease in blood pressure and muscular relaxation |
| refractory period | is a period of time that follows an orgasm during which an individual is incapable of experiencing another orgasm for a period of time |
| emotion | a subjective state of being that we often describe as our feelings. Emotions result from the combination of subjective experience, expression, cognitive appraisal, and physiological responses. |
| Mood | refers to a prolonged, less intense, affective state that does not occur in response to something we experience. Mood states may not be consciously recognized and do not carry the intentionality that is associated with emotion |
| cognitive appraisal | a person tries to determine the way they will be impacted by a situation |
| The James-Lange theory of emotion | asserts that emotions arise from physiological arousal, you would only experience a feeling of fear after physiological arousal had taken place. Furthermore, different arousal patterns would be associated with different feelings. |
| Cannon-Bard theory of emotion | physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously, yet independently |
| facial feedback hypothesis | proposes that your facial expression can actually affect your emotional experience |
| The Schachter-Singer two-factor theory | takes into account both physiological arousal and the emotional experience, emotions are composed of two factors: physiological and cognitive. In other words, physiological arousal is interpreted in context to produce the emotional experience. |
| appraisal theory | have thoughts (a cognitive appraisal) before you experience an emotion,the emotion you experience depends on the thoughts you had, explains the way two people can have two completely different emotions regarding the same event |
| polygraph | lie detector test, measures the physiological arousal of an individual responding to a series of questions |
| cognitive-mediational theory (Lazarus) | asserts our emotions are determined by our appraisal of the stimulus. This appraisal mediates between the stimulus and the emotional response, and it is immediate and often unconscious |
| automatic emotion regulation (AER) | non-deliberate control of emotions. It is simply not reacting with your emotions, and AER can affect all aspects of emotional processes, can influence your appraisal, your choice to engage in an emotional experience, and after an emotion is experienced |
| constructivist theory | predictions that construct your experience of the world. |
| Hypothalamus | plays a role in the activation of the sympathetic nervous system that is a part of any given emotional reaction. |
| Halamus | serves as a sensory relay center whose neurons project to both the amygdala and the higher cortical regions for further processing. |
| Amygdala | plays a role in processing emotional information and sending that information on |
| Hippocampus | connects emotional experience with cognition |
| hippocampal | structure and function are linked to a variety of mood and anxiety disorders. |
| cultural display rule | is one of a collection of culturally specific standards that govern the types and frequencies of displays of emotions that are acceptable |
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