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Quality ch 1
Radiation and X-ray Properties: Discovery, Measurement, and Protection
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| fluorescence | The instantaneous production of light resulting from the interaction of some type of energy and some element or compound. |
| frequency | The number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time. |
| photon | A quantum of electromagnetic radiation, which can be thought of as a particle of light. |
| quantum | The minimum amount of any physical entity involved in an interaction. |
| radioactivity | The process by which unstable atomic nuclei lose energy by emitting radiation. |
| wavelength | The distance between successive crests of a wave, typically used in the context of electromagnetic waves. |
| absorbed dose | The amount of energy deposited by ionizing radiation in a given mass of tissue. |
| air kerma | A measure of the energy transferred from ionizing radiation to air, expressed in joules per kilogram. |
| ALARA | An acronym for 'As Low As Reasonably Achievable,' a principle for minimizing radiation exposure. |
| equivalent dose | A dose quantity that accounts for the biological effects of different types of radiation. |
| effective dose | A dose quantity that reflects the overall risk of exposure to ionizing radiation, taking into account the type of radiation and the sensitivity of different tissues. |
| electromagnetic radiation | A form of energy that is propagated through space as electric and magnetic fields oscillating at right angles to each other. |
| exposure | The amount of ionizing radiation that passes through a specific area, typically measured in coulombs per kilogram. |
| X-rays | A form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than visible light, used for medical imaging. |
| Anode | The positively charged electrode in a tube, where electrons are collected. |
| Cathode | The negatively charged electrode in a tube, where electrons are emitted. |
| Stream of electrons | A flow of charged particles, specifically electrons, which can produce X-rays when accelerated. |
| Crookes tube | A type of low-vacuum tube used by Roentgen in his experiments that led to the discovery of X-rays. |
| Dr. Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen | The German scientist who discovered X-rays on November 8, 1895. |
| Polytechnic Institute in Zurich | The educational institution where Roentgen studied. |
| University of Würzburg | The university where Roentgen was appointed to the faculty and served as the director of the Physics Institute. |
| barium platinocyanide | A material that fluoresced when exposed to X-rays during Roentgen's experiments. |
| Roentgen | The physicist who discovered x-rays. |
| radiograph | The world's first radiograph produced by Roentgen, showing the bones of his wife Anna Bertha's hand. |
| barium platinocyanide-coated paper | The material used by Roentgen to visualize the bones of his hand when exposed to x-rays. |
| 15-minute exposure | The duration Roentgen used to create the first static image of his wife's hand. |
| Würzburg Physico-Medical Society | The local professional society to which Roentgen submitted his scholarly paper on x-rays. |
| On a New Kind of Rays | The title of Roentgen's article written in German about his discovery of x-rays. |
| Nature | The journal in which an English translation of Roentgen's article appeared on January 23, 1896. |
| x-ray-proof underwear | A product offered as protection from x-rays, which were known to penetrate solid materials. |
| Pall Mall Gazette | The London newspaper that published an editorial expressing public concern about x-rays in 1896. |
| Photography | A London periodical that commented on Roentgen rays in a creative fashion in 1896. |
| static image | An image that does not move, such as the first radiograph produced by Roentgen. |
| fluoresce | The process by which certain materials emit light when exposed to x-rays. |
| skepticism | The initial doubt held by the scientific community regarding the claims about x-rays. |
| productive curiosity | The shift in attitude from skepticism to investigation of x-rays for medical benefits. |
| inanimate objects | Non-living entities that were exposed to x-rays to explore their properties. |
| living human bodies | The focus of investigations into legitimate medical applications of x-rays. |
| nonmedical and nonscientific communities | Groups that began to take a different view of Roentgen's discovery as it gained public attention. |
| legislation | The legal measures attempted to ban the use of x-ray-producing devices in opera glasses. |
| public furor | The heightened public concern and debate surrounding the use of x-rays. |
| solid materials | Substances that x-rays were known to penetrate. |
| experiments with electricity and low-vacuum tubes | The type of research that Roentgen's contemporaries were involved in, which related to his discovery. |
| investigations | The research efforts that concentrated on the properties and applications of x-rays. |
| Roentgen rays | Another name for x-rays. |
| Roentgenology | The branch of medicine concerned with the use of x-rays. |
| Roentgen (unit) | A unit of radiation exposure. |
| Erythema | The reddening and burning of the skin caused by exposure to large doses of x-rays. |
| X-ray exposure effects | Can cause biological damage, including growth of malignant tumors and chromosomal changes. |
| Speed of x-rays | X-rays travel at a constant velocity of 3 × 10^8 m/s or 186,000 miles/s in a vacuum. |
| Optical focus of x-rays | X-rays cannot be optically focused or refracted by optical lenses. |
| Polyenergetic beams | X-ray beams composed of photons with many different energies. |
| Kilovoltage peak (kVp) | The maximum energy that a photon in any x-ray beam may have, set on the control panel of the radiographic unit. |
| Diagnostic range of x-ray energies | The medically useful range of x-ray energies is 30 to 150 kVp. |
| Divergent beam | X-rays used in diagnostic radiography form a beam in which each individual photon travels in a straight line. |
| Fluorescence from x-rays | Certain substances produce light when struck by x-rays, used in some types of image receptors. |
| Penetration ability of x-rays | X-rays can pass through the human body based on their energy and the compositions and thicknesses of the tissues. |
| Public reaction to x-rays | In 1896, there was significant public furor and concern over the use of x-rays. |
| Scientific applications of x-rays | Continued to be investigated for the benefit of society despite public distractions. |
| X-ray characteristics | X-rays are invisible, electrically neutral, have no mass, and travel at the speed of light. |
| X-ray safety | X-rays can be used safely when radiation protection procedures are followed. |
| X-ray imaging | X-rays assist medical diagnosis by imaging virtually every part of the human body. |
| X-ray production | X-rays can be produced in a range of energies for different diagnostic purposes. |
| Absorption of X-rays | X-rays can be absorbed or scattered by tissues in the human body. |
| Photoelectric effect | When x-rays are absorbed as a result of a specific type of interaction with matter, a secondary or characteristic photon is produced. |
| Chemical and biological damage | X-rays can cause chemical and biologic damage to living tissue through excitation and ionization of atoms comprising cells. |
| Energy | The ability to do work, existing in different forms such as electrical energy, kinetic energy, thermal energy, and electromagnetic energy. |
| Electromagnetic spectrum | All radiations that are electromagnetic make up a spectrum. |
| Angstrom | A metric unit of length equal to one ten-billionth of a meter, or 10^-10 m. |
| Nanometer | A unit of measurement for wavelength; 1 Å equals 0.1 nm, which equals 10^-9 m. |
| Dual nature of X-rays | X-rays act like both waves and particles. |
| Higher-energy electromagnetic radiation | Tends to exhibit more particle-like characteristics. |
| Lower-energy electromagnetic radiation | Tends to exhibit more wave-like characteristics. |
| X-rays in radiography | Range in wavelength from approximately 0.1 to 1.0 Å. |
| Megavoltage therapy | A type of radiation therapy using high-energy X-rays. |
| Supervoltage therapy | A type of radiation therapy using higher energy than conventional X-rays. |
| Diagnostic imaging | Uses X-rays to create images of the inside of the body. |
| Contact therapy | A type of radiation therapy where the radiation source is placed in contact with the skin. |
| Grenz rays | A type of low-energy X-ray therapy. |
| Gamma rays | High-energy electromagnetic radiation emitted by radioactive materials. |
| 1 MeV | One million electron volts, a unit of energy commonly used in radiation physics. |
| 1 keV | One thousand electron volts, a unit of energy commonly used in radiation physics. |
| Radiowaves | The least energetic on the electromagnetic spectrum. |
| Nanometer (nm) | Another unit of measurement for wavelength; 1 Å equals 0.1 nm, which equals 10^-9 m. |
| Amplitude | The height of the wave. |
| Speed of Light (c) | A constant velocity of 3 × 10^8 m/s or 186,000 miles/s. |
| Inverse Relationship | Wavelength and frequency are inversely related; as one increases, the other decreases. |
| Formula for Wavelength (λ) | λ = c/v to solve for wavelength. |
| Formula for Frequency (v) | v = c/λ to solve for frequency. |
| Hertz (Hz) | Unit of frequency; one Hertz is equal to one cycle per second. |
| X-ray Frequency Range | X-rays used in radiography range in frequency from approximately 3 × 10^19 to 3 × 10^18 Hz. |
| Energy of Photon | Measured in units of electron volts (eV); the energy of diagnostic x-rays is approximately between 10^4 and 10^5 eV. |
| Radiation Exposure Units | There are two systems for quantifying radiation exposure: the Standard (British) System and the International System (SI). |
| Roentgen (R) | Unit of measure for exposure in air in the Standard system. |
| Coulomb/kilogram | Unit of measure for exposure in air in the International System (SI). |
| Radiation Absorbed Dose (rad) | Unit of measure for absorbed dose in tissue in the Standard system. |
| Gray (Gy) | Unit of measure for absorbed dose in tissue in the International System (SI). |
| Radiation Equivalent in Man (rem) | Unit of measure for effective dose in both Standard and International Systems. |
| Curie (Ci) | Unit of measure for radioactivity in the Standard system. |
| Sievert (Sv) | Unit of measure for radioactivity in the International System (SI). |
| Becquerel (Bq) | Unit of measure for radioactivity in the International System (SI). |
| Quality Factor (W) | Takes into consideration the biological effects of different types of ionizing radiation. |
| Wr | The quality factor for x- and gamma rays, which is 1, indicating equal biological effects on tissues. |
| Rad | A unit of absorbed dose equal to an energy transfer of 100 ergs per gram of absorbing matter. |
| Gy | The SI unit of absorbed dose defined as 1 joule of energy absorbed in each kilogram of absorbing material. |
| Rem | A unit of equivalent dose that accounts for the biological effect of radiation, where 1 rem equals 0.01 Sv. |
| Sv | The SI unit of equivalent dose, where 1 Sv equals 100 rem. |
| Coulomb/kilogram (C/kg) | A measure of the number of electrons liberated by ionization per kilogram of air, equivalent to roentgen. |
| 1 R of exposure | Approximately equal to 0.01 air kerma. |
| Conversion factor from rad to gray | 1 rad is equal to 0.01 gray. |
| Tissue Weighting Factor (W+) | A factor used in calculating effective dose to account for the sensitivity of different tissues to radiation. |
| Biological Effects | The changes in biological systems resulting from exposure to ionizing radiation. |
| Radiation Weighting Factors | Factors used to calculate equivalent dose based on the type of ionizing radiation. |
| 1C/kg to R conversion | 1 C/kg is equivalent to 3876 R. |
| Low-Dose Medical Radiation | Radiation exposure typically expressed in mGyt, referring to absorbed doses in medical applications. |
| Radiosensitivity | The varying sensitivity of different tissues, organs, or systems to radiation. |
| Fast Neutrons | A type of radiation with a weighting factor of 20. |
| Protons | A type of radiation with a weighting factor of 2. |
| X-rays and Gamma Rays | Types of radiation with a weighting factor of 1. |
| Effective doses | If more than one tissue, organ, or system is exposed, the effective doses are added together (summed). |
| ICRP-recommended tissue weighting factors | Table 1.2 is the International Commission of Radiologic Protection (ICRP)-recommended tissue weighting factors. |
| Tissue weighting factors | Breast, adrenals, bone marrow, colon, extrathoracic region, gallbladder, heart, kidneys, lung, lymph nodes, muscle, oral mucosa, pancreas, prostate, small intestine, spleen, stomach, thymus, uterus, cervix have a weighting factor of 0.12. |
| Gonads weighting factor | Gonads have a weighting factor of 0.08. |
| Bladder, esophagus, liver, thyroid weighting factor | Bladder, esophagus, liver, thyroid have a weighting factor of 0.04. |
| Bone surface, brain, salivary glands, skin weighting factor | Bone surface, brain, salivary glands, skin have a weighting factor of 0.01. |
| Tissue radiosensitivity | It is important to note that our knowledge about tissue radiosensitivity and low-dose radiation risk has uncertainties and continues to evolve. |
| W₁ | The W₁ has varied due to variations over the years regarding tissue radiosensitivity. |
| Ionizing radiation | Ionizing radiation has the potential to produce biologic harm and should be administered wisely. |
| Radioactive disintegration | This process is called radioactive disintegration or decay. |
| Radioisotopes | Radioisotopes are the radioactive elements used in nuclear medicine and radiation therapy. |
| Half-life | Half-life is a term that describes the time it takes for the radiation activity to reduce to 50% of its original activity. |
| ALARA principle | The as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA) principle is intended for minimizing radiation dose to the patient, to themselves, and to others. |
| Optimization for radiological protection | Optimization for radiological protection means the radiation dose should be appropriate to the imaging procedure and avoid unnecessary exposure to the patient while producing quality images for diagnostic interpretation. |
| Cardinal principles of radiation protection | Central to minimizing the radiation dose to oneself and to others are the cardinal principles of shielding, time, and distance. |
| Shielding | Shielding broadly refers to the use of radiopaque materials to greatly reduce radiation exposure to radiographers during exams. |
| Lead-impregnated materials | Lead-impregnated materials are a common example of shielding. |
| Lead aprons | Lead aprons must be worn by the radiographer and other health care workers when it is necessary to be in close proximity to the patient during an exposure. |
| Thyroid shields | Thyroid shields are commonly used in conjunction with lead aprons, especially during fluoroscopic exams. |
| Leaded curtains | Leaded curtains may be draped from the fluoroscopy unit to provide a barrier between the fluoroscopist and the x-ray beam during fluoroscopic exams. |
| Primary barriers | Barriers to which the x-ray beam is routinely directed, such as the floor beneath the x-ray table and the wall behind the upright Bucky. |
| Secondary barriers | Barriers that protect those outside the room from scatter radiation, such as the wall separating the control panel from the room and the ceiling. |
| General rule of thumb for shielding | Always maximize shielding (use as much as possible) to reduce radiation exposure. |
| Gonadal shielding | A practice recommended to be discontinued during abdominal and pelvic imaging due to reduced radiation exposures and potential obscuring of anatomy. |
| ICRP tissue weighting factor (W+) | The factor for gonad sensitivity lowered from 0.20 to 0.08. |
| Time in radiation exposure | Refers to the duration of exposure to ionizing radiation and the time spent in a health care environment where exposure is accumulated. |
| Distance in radiation exposure | The space between oneself and the source of ionizing radiation, where intensity diminishes over distance. |
| Inverse-square law | A principle stating that as one increases the distance from an ionizing radiation source, the radiation intensity significantly decreases. |
| Cardinal principles for minimizing radiation dose | Time: Limit exposure time; Distance: Maintain safe distance; Shielding: Maximize shielding use. |
| Collimator | A device used to limit the field of x-ray exposure, thereby reducing the radiation dose to the patient. |
| Beam restriction | Limiting the area of exposure to lower the total dose to the patient. |
| X-ray interactions in the body | Refers to x-ray photons interacting with atoms of tissue, where greater tissue volume increases the opportunity for interactions. |
| Photon energy absorption | The energy of the photon can be totally absorbed, contributing to patient dose. |
| Scattered radiation | Radiation that may contribute to the dose to radiographers or others if in the immediate area. |
| Radiation exposure reduction | Achieved by limiting the field of x-ray exposure and maximizing distance and shielding. |
| Patient-sensitive areas | Areas of the patient that require careful consideration for shielding during radiographic imaging. |
| Radiographer's safety | Maintaining a safe distance from the radiation source during exposure is crucial for radiographer safety. |
| Duration of exposure | The length of time a patient is exposed during a radiological exam or the time a radiographer spends in a fluoroscopy suite. |
| Radiological exam | An examination that involves exposure to ionizing radiation for diagnostic purposes. |
| Radiation dose | The amount of radiation energy absorbed by the patient during an x-ray procedure. |
| Health care environment exposure | The accumulated exposure to ionizing radiation in a health care setting. |
| Maximize distance principle | Always maintain a safe distance from the radiation source during exposure. |
| mAs | mAs = mA x s; these are the factors selected by the radiographer to produce an x-ray beam of a given quality controlled by kVp and quantity ultimately controlled by mAs. |
| Avoid unnecessary duplicate exams | Radiographers must recognize and accept their role as a patient advocate and do what is necessary to avoid unnecessary duplication of exams. |
| Screening for pregnancy | Screening for pregnancy is another important task for minimizing unnecessary exposure to a developing fetus. |
| Shielding materials | When it is necessary to perform a radiologic exam on a pregnant patient, shielding materials may be used, in special circumstances, along with precise collimation to minimize the radiation dose administered to the fetus. |
| Radiographic procedures | Develop a mental checklist for radiographic procedures and perform them the same way every time to minimize mistakes involving the details of a task. |
| kVp | Kilovoltage peak. |
| Wavelength and frequency | Inversely related; higher-energy x-rays have decreased wavelength and increased frequency. |
| Radiation exposure measurement systems | Standard system and the International System (SI). |
| Exposure in air | Measured in coulomb/kilogram, roentgen (R), and air kerma (Gya). |
| X-ray discovery date | November 8, 1895. |
| First Nobel Prize for physics | Awarded to Dr. Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen. |
| X-ray beam in diagnostic radiography | Can be described as being homogeneous and monoenergetic. |
| Radiation weighting factor (W) for x- and gamma rays | 1 |
| Minimizing radiation exposure | Limiting the x-ray exposure field, controlling quality and quantity of the x-ray beam, avoiding unnecessary duplicate exams. |
| Radiographic procedures checklist | Develop a mental checklist for radiographic procedures and perform consistently. |
| Biologically damaging effects of x-rays discovery date | Some were discovered in 1898. |
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