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UNIT 2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| behavior genetics | the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior |
| heredity | the transmission of traits from one generation to the next |
| environment | every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us |
| chromosomes | threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes |
| DNA (deoxyribosnucleic acid) | A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. |
| genes | the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein |
| genome | the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes |
| identical (monozygotic) twins | individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms |
| fraternal (dizygotic) twins | twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment. |
| tempermant | a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity |
| heritabilty | The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied. |
| interaction | the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity) |
| molecular genetics | the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes |
| molecular behavior genetics | the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior |
| epigenetics | the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environnemnts can innfluence gene expression (without a DNA change) |
| evolutionary physchology | the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, usin principles of natural selection |
| natural selection | the principle that inheritited traits that better enable and organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environnemnt will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to suceeding generations |
| mutation | a random error in gene replication that leads to a change |
| social script | a culturally modeled guid for how ot act in various situations |
| culture | the enduring, behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next |
| norms | understood rules for accepted and expected behavior. norms prescribe "proper" behavior |
| tight culture | places with clearly defined and reliably imposed rules |
| loose culture | places with flexible and informal norms |
| individualism | a cultural pattern that emphasizes people's own goals over group goals and defines identity mainly in terms of unique personal attributes |
| collectivism | a cultural pattern that prioritizes the goals of important groups (often one's extended family or work group) |
| sex | in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, and intersex |
| gender | in psychology, the behavioral characteristics that people associate with boy, gril, man, and womann |
| intersex | possessing male and female biological sexual characterisitics at birth |
| agression | any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone pysically or emotionaly |
| relational agression | an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing |
| X chromosome | The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child. |
| y chromosome | the sex chromosome typically found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child. |
| Testostorone | the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty |
| estrogens | sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity |
| puberty | the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing |
| primary sex characteristics | the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible |
| secondary test characteristics | nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair. |
| spermache | boys' first ejaculation |
| menarche | the first menstrual period |
| role | a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave |
| gender role | a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females |
| sexual aggression | any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is intended to harm someone physically or emotionally. Can be expressed as either sexual harassment or sexual assault |
| gender identity | the individual's sense of being male or female, or intersex |
| social learning theory | the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished |
| gender typing | the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role |
| Androgny | blending traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine characteristics |
| transgender | an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex |
| developmental psychology | a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span |
| cross-sectional study | research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time |
| longitudinal study | research that follows and retests the same people over time |
| zygote | the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo |
| embryo | the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month |
| fetus | the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth |
| teratogens | agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm |
| fetal alcohol syndrome | physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking |
| habituation | decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. |
| maturation | biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience |
| cognition | all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating |
| schema | a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information |
| assimilation | interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas |
| accommodation | adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information |
| sesorimotor stage | in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities |
| object permanence | the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived |
| preoperational stage | in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic |
| egocentrism | in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view |
| Concrete operational stage | in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events |
| conservation | the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects |
| formal operational stage | in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts |
| scaffold | in Vygotsky's theory, a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking |
| theory of mind | people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict. |
| stranger anxiety | the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age |
| attachment | an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation |
| critical period | an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development |
| imprinting | the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life |
| basic trust | according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers |
| self-concept | all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?" |
| adolescence | the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence |
| identity | our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles |
| social identity | the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships |
| intamacy | in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood |
| Emerging adulthood | a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults |
| menopause | the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines |
| neurocognitive disorders (NCDS) | acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related to Alzheimer's disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse. In older adults neurocognitive disorders were formerly called dementia |
| alzheimer's disease | a neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with an onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities |
| social clock | the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement |
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