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psych unit 1
all the terms from ap psych unit 1 packet
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| nature-nurture issue | the long-standing debate in psych about whether genetic factors (nature) or environmental factors (nurture) have a greater influence on human development and behavior |
| natural selection | the process by which organisms with traits that are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on genes |
| evolutionary psychology | the study of how psychological traits and behaviors have evolved over time to enhance survival and reproductive success |
| behavior genetics | the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior |
| mutation | a random error in gene replication that leads to a change |
| environment | the environmental influences and experiences that shape an individual’s psychological development, behaviors, and cognitive processes |
| heredity | the transmission of genetic information from biological parents to offspring |
| genes | inherent biological and genetic factors that influence an individual’s psychological development, traits, behaviors, and cognitive abilities |
| genome | the complete instructions for making an organism |
| identical/monozygotic twins | individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms |
| fraternal/dizygotic twins | individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs; they’re genetically no closer than ordinary siblings, but they share a prenatal environment |
| interaction | the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity) |
| epigenetics | “in addition to” genetics; the study of molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression (without a dna change) |
| nervous system | the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems |
| central nervous system | the brain and spinal cord |
| peripheral nervous system | the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body |
| nerves | bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the cns with muscles, glands, and sensory organs |
| sensory (afferent) neurons | neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord |
| motor (efferent) neurons | neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands |
| interneurons | neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs |
| somatic nervous system | the division of the pns that controls the body’s skeletal muscles; also called the skeletal nervous system |
| autonomic nervous system | the part of the pns that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs |
| sympathetic nervous system | the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy |
| parasympathetic nervous system | the division of the ans that calms the body, conserving its energy |
| reflex | a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee jerk response |
| neuron | a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system |
| cell body | the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life support center |
| dendrites | a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands |
| myelin sheath | a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; it enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next |
| glial cells | cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory |
| action potential | brief electrical impulse that travels along the axon of a neuron |
| threshold | the level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron; it is the minimum amount of stimulation necessary to produce a response |
| refractory period | brief period following an action potential during which a neuron is unable to generate another action potential |
| all-or-none response | once a neuron reaches its threshold of excitation, it will fire an action potential at full strength |
| synapse | the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron |
| neurotransmitters | chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons, allowing for communication within the nervous system; this junction is the synaptic gap |
| reuptake | the process in which neurotransmitters that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron by which they were originally released |
| endorphins | “morphine within,” natural, opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure |
| agonist | a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action |
| antagonist | a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action |
| endocrine system | the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream |
| hormones | chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that travel through the bloodstream to target cells or organs, where they regulate physiological processes and behaviors |
| psychoactive drug | a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and moods |
| substance use disorder | a disorder characterized by continued substance use despite significant life disruption |
| depressants | drugs that reduce neural activity and slow bodily functions |
| tolerance | the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect |
| addiction | an everyday term for compulsive substance use (and sometimes for dysfunctional behavior patterns) that continue despite harmful consequences |
| withdrawal | the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior |
| barbiturates | drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement |
| opioids | opium and its derivatives, they express neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety |
| stimulants | drugs that ecstasy neural activity and speed up bodily functions |
| hallucinogens | false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus |
| near-death experience | an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death; often similar to drug-induced hallucinations |
| biological psychology | the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes |
| biopsychosocial approach | an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis |
| levels of analysis | the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon |
| neuroplasticity | the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience |
| lesion | tissue destructions; may occur naturally (from disease or trauma), during surgery, or experimentally (using electrodes to destroy brain cells) |
| eeg (electroencephalogram) | an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brains’ surface; these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp |
| meg (magnetoencephalography) | a brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity |
| ct (computerized tomography) scan | a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure |
| pet (positron emission tomography) | technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task |
| mri (magnetic resonance imaging) | a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue; shows brain anatomy |
| fmri (functional mri) | a technique for revealing blood flow, and therefore, brain activity by comparing successive mri scans; shows brain function as well as structure |
| hindbrain | consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; directs essential survival functions, such as breathing, sleeping, and wakefulness, as well as coordination and balance |
| midbrain | found atop the brainstem; connects the hindbrain with the forebrain, controls some motor movement, and transmits auditory and visual information |
| forebrain | consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities |
| brainstem | the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions |
| medulla | the hindbrain structure that is the brainstem’s base; controls the heartbeat and breathing |
| thalamus | the forebrain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla |
| reticular formation | a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; it filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal |
| cerebellum | the hindbrain’s “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output/balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory |
| limbic system | neural system located mostly in the forebrain (below the central hemispheres); associated with emotions and drives |
| amygdala | two lima-bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion |
| hypothalamus | a limbic system neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward |
| hippocampus | a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories - of facts and events - for storage |
| cerebral cortex | the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain’s cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center |
| frontal lobes | the part of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; enables linguistic processing, muscle movements, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning (such as making plans and judgements) |
| parietal lobes | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; it receives sensory input for touch and body position |
| occipital lobes | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields |
| temporal lobes | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; it includes the auditory areas, each of which receives information primarily from the other ear; they also enable language processing |
| motor cortex | a cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements |
| somatosensory cortex | a cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations |
| association areas | areas of the cerebral cortex that aren’t involved in primary motor or sensory functions; involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking |
| neurogenesis | the formation of new neurons |
| corpus callosum | the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them |
| split brain | a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them |
| charles darwin | the father of evolutionary psychology, a field that views psychological traits as adaptations shaped by natural selection |
| roger sperry | a neurobiologist who won a nobel prize for his split-brain research, which demonstrated the left and right hemispheres of the brain have specialized functions |
| michael gazzaniga | known for his pioneering split-brain research, which revealed how the two cerebral hemispheres function independently and communicate with each other |
Created by:
hmayo
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