Help
Options
Didn't know it?
click below
click below
Knew it?
click below
click below
Don't Know
Remaining cards (0)
Know
retry
shuffle
restart
0:00
Embed Code - If you would like this activity on your web page, copy the script below and paste it into your web page.
Normal Size Small Size show me how
Normal Size Small Size show me how
PSYC 270 FINAL
FINAL EXAM
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Psychology | The scientific study of the mind and behaviour |
| Cognitive psychology | An objective, empirical discipline that studies the mind using an experimental approach. (Empirical Investigation of Cognition) |
| Cognition | Collection of mental processes and activities |
| Aspects of Cognition (7) | -Perception -Attention -Learning -Memory -Language -Reasoning -Judgment & Decision Making |
| Cognitive science | An interdisciplinary approach to the scientific study of the mind; using all available scientific techniques and including all relevant scientific disciplines |
| Assumptions of cognitive science-Materialism | Matter and energy are all that exist, the mind is seen as natural machinery. |
| Assumptions of Cognitive Science-Reductionism | Attempt to understand something complex by breaking it down into its components. -Complex system = sum of its parts |
| Assumptions of Cognitive Science -Empiricism | Emphasizes the role of experience and evidence -Especially sensory experience |
| Aristotle's Doctrine of Association | The human mind is composed of ideas (elements of the environment) that are organized by associations (links between ideas). |
| Aristotle's Laws of Association | (1) Similarity |
| Descartes' dualism theory | The mind is made of something qualitatively different from the physical brain |
| Materialist problems with dualism | The mind is a label for what the brain does (we are our brains). Localization of function in neuroscience |
| Wilhelm Wundt | Baby daddy of psychology, studied introspection (conscious reflecting on experience of stimulus vs response) –Established Cognitive Psychology as its own science (1879) |
| Edward Titchener | Created structuralism based on introspection but more focused on sensory experiences |
| Hermann von Ebbinghaus | Memory researcher |
| Memory Research Method (Hermann Von Ebbinghaus) | Learn a list of CVC trigrams to mastery, set it aside, relearn the list. |
| William James | Created functionalism, believed in "Stream of Thought" |
| Functionalism | The study of functions of consciousness, not based on structure. Evolution oriented - how the mind adapts |
| Behaviourism | Scientific study of observable behaviour -"Anti-mentalistic" - Based on Stimulus/Response associations --Classical Conditioning --Reinforcement Principles |
| John Watson | Founder of behaviourism |
| B. F. Skinner | Radical behaviourist, brought focus to observable and measurable parts of psychology; believed human behaviour could be fully explained with an adequate understanding of stimulus-response relationships |
| Noam Chomsky's criticism of behaviourism | Criticized Skinner’s Account of Language Children’s “Lexical Explosion” Generative Capacity |
| Assumptions of cognitive psychology | (1) Mental processes exist (2) Mental processes can be scientifically studied (3) Humans are active information processors |
| Channel capacity | An analogy for the limited capacity of the human information processing system |
| 7 Themes of cognition | 1. Attention 2. Data-driven versus conceptually driven processing 3. Representation 4. Implicit versus explicit memory 5. Metacognition 6. Brain 7. Embodiment |
| Attention | Sensation and perception dependent, limited in quantity, memory |
| Data driven vs conceptual driven | Bottom-up vs top-down processing |
| Representation | Knowing what something is based on stimuli memory through senses of concepts (association images) |
| Implicit vs explicit memory | (Implicit) Natural/preprogrammed features remembering, not necessarily conscious. (Explicit) Deliberately retrieving information |
| Metacognition | Thinking about thinking |
| Brain | Organ, localization of function |
| Embodiment/embodied cognition | Everything learned is physically encoded/printed in the brain (hands on learning) |
| Independent Variable | Manipulated by researchers to cause a change |
| Dependent Variable | Result of introducing the independent variable --The effect researchers measure |
| Graphing Variable Data | (x,y) Independent Variable = x Dependent Variable = y |
| Reliability | Measuring result consistency --Consistent = high reliability |
| Validity | How much the result satisfies the research objectives --Good way to obtain better accuracy |
| Accuracy | How correct the measure is --Measure to obtain the truest answer ---Includes measurement of errors |
| Channel Capacity | Any channel- any physical device that transmits messages or information- has a limited capacity --Neurons and the structure of the brain have limited capacity to process information |
| Encoding | The act of taking in information and converting it into a usable mental form --Mental representation |
| Lexical Decision Task | A timed task in which people decide whether letter strings are words |
| Lexical Decision Task | Process Model |
| Limitations of Strict Information Processing | -Solid evidence exists for parallel processing -Context effects and top-down processing -Not useful for studying complex cognition (e.g., problem solving tasks) |
| Parallel Processing | Multiple mental processes can operate simultaneously |
| Top-Down Processing (A.K.A. Conceptually-driven processing) | When existing context or knowledge influences earlier or simpler forms of mental processes |
| Bottom-Up Processing (A.K.A. Data-driven processing) | Building perceptions from sensory input |
| Methods of Investigating the Brain | -Lesions -Direct Stimulation -Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) -Electroencephalograms (EEG) -Structural Imaging -Metabolic Measures |
| Sensation | The reception of stimulation from the environment, and its initial encoding into the nervous system. |
| Perception | The process of interpreting and understanding sensory information --Both conscious and unconscious --Ex. Object recognition |
| Photoreceptors | -Rods -Cones |
| Compression | Transformation of information that both analyzes and summarizes the original sensory input --Applies to all senses ---Summarized record of stimulus |
| Visual Pathways | (1) Visual field (2) Retina (3) Optic nerve (4) Optic Chiasm --Contralateral/Ipsilateral demonstrated (5a) Superior Colliculus --Quick visual attentional system (5b) Lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus (6b) Visual Cortex --Occipital lobes |
| Saccades | Eyes sweep from one point to another in fast (jerky) movements |
| Fixations | The pause during which the eye is almost stationary and is taking in visual information |
| Visual Attention | The act of attending to some stimulus with our visual system |
| Visual Sensory Memory -Visual Sensory Register (Sperling) | A.K.A. Iconic memory -Temporary visual buffer that holds information for brief periods of time --(250-500 ms) |
| Basics of Science | Science makes assumptions about the world |
| Scientific Assumptions (3) | 1. Events are not merely random; there are patterns 2. These patterns have underlying causes/mechanisms 3. We can discover these causes |
| Plato and Aristotle | Ancient Greek Philosophy |
| Plato's Contribution | Locus of the mind is in the brain -"Wax Tablet" analogy |
| Aristotle's Contribution | Doctrine of Association |
| Evidence against Dualism Theory | Lack of divisibility (brain is not separate from mind) -Phineas Gage -Localization of function -William James |
| Introspection | A method in which one looks carefully inward, reporting on inner sensations and experiences |
| Structuralism | Using Introspection to discover the structure of the mind (elements), what's in the mind and in what quantity. -- but not why things are in the mind |
| CVC trigrams (Hermann Von Ebbinghaus) | Consonant-Vowel-Consonant words - Listed form |
| Savings Score (Hermann Von Ebbinghaus) | The number of trials that had been saved in memory between the first and second sessions. |
| Stream of Thought | The contents of human consciousness are better likened to a stream than a collection of discrete elements or ideas |
| Challenges to Behaviourism | (1) Attention and Vigilance --Errors in executing learned behaviour (WW2) (2) Language Debate --Children's "Lexical Explosion" --Generative Capacity ^^ Criticism by Noam Chomsky (linguist) (3) Misbehaviour of Organisms --Not performing a learned |
| Science in everyday life | - Skeptical - Self-correcting science - Science is uncertain (tentative) -- No proof, just evidence |
| Standard theory of Human Cognition | - Modal Model of Memory - Encoding (SLIDE 28) |
| Three Components of Standard Theory/Model | (1) Sensory Memory (2) Short-term Memory (3) Long-term Memory |
| Information Processing | Claims about Cognition |
| Assumptions | Strict Information Processing |
| Context effects | Related concepts or existing knowledge can speed-up processing -Priming effects |
| 10 Structures of a Neuron | -Cell body (Soma) -Nucleus -Dendrites -Axon hillock -Axon -Myelin sheath -Axon terminals/terminal button -Synapse -Synaptic Vesicles -Neurotransmitters |
| Neural Communication Process | Electrochemical |
| Function of a Neuron- Action Potential | - Electrical impulse that travels down the axon, triggering/stimulating the release of neurotransmitters --All-or-none principle |
| Function of a Neuron- Resting Potential and Voltage | (-70mV) Internal potential relative to the outside of the cell |
| Excitatory Threshold Voltage | (-55mV) |
| Function of a Neuron- Depolarization and Voltage | Excitatory function - Adds positively charged ions -Neuron charge pushed up to (+30mV) or (+50mV) |
| Function of a Neuron- Repolarization and Voltage | Addition of negatively charged ions until resting potential (-70mV) achieved |
| Function of a Neuron- Synaptic Transmission | -Action potential travels to terminal button, stimulating vesicles to move and fuse with the membrane -Neurotransmitters are released into the synapse -Neurotransmitters bind to post-synaptic receptor sites |
| Receptor Sites | Locations on a neuron that uniquely recognize and bind to particular neurotransmitters |
| Function of a Neuron- Hyperpolarization | Inhibitory function -Adds negatively charged ions past resting potential - Dips below (-70mV) |
| Graded Postsynaptic Potentials | - Excitatory or Inhibitory - Increases (EPSP) or decreases (IPSP) the likelihood that the post-synaptic neuron will fire again |
| Neurotransmitters after receptor release | -Reuptake -Inactivation |
| Function of a Neuron- Refractory Period | After hyperpolarization Return to resting potential with addition of positive ions |
| Neural Plasticity | The ability of the nervous system to change and reform |
| 5 Functions of Neural Plasticity | -Growth of dendrites and axons -Neurogenesis -Synaptogenesis -Pruning -Myelination |
| Long Term Potentiation (LTP) | Process by which connections between neurons are strengthened --More receptors --Biological changes in neurochemicals and receptors |
| Brain Parts | The Cerebrum (4) |
| Brain Part Functions- Cerebral Cortex | -Responsible for analyzing sensory experiences and higher level brain functions --E.g., language; metacognition; reasoning |
| Subcortical Structures- Corpus Callosum | -Integration of information between hemispheres |
| Subcortical Structures- Amygdala | -Processing emotions |
| Subcortical Structures- Thalamus | -Sensory relay station --All except smell |
| Subcortical Structures- Hippocampus | -Consciously accessible -Declarative memory --Retrieval and formation of memory |
| Cerebral Cortex Lobes | - Frontal lobes - Temporal lobes -Occipital lobes -Parietal lobes |
| Prefrontal Cortex | -Frontal lobes -Personality, planning, decision making, self awareness |
| Broca's Area | -Frontal lobe (Dominant hemisphere) -Language production |
| Motor Cortex | -Frontal lobes -Voluntary movement -Area size dedicated to function reflects precision of motor control needed |
| Central Sulcus | Divides the frontal lobes from the rest of the cerebral cortex |
| Somatosensory Cortex | Sensations of touch, pain, pleasure |
| Frontal Lobes | -Higher-level functions -Complex human behaviour, social skills, goal-oriented actions |
| Parietal Lobes | -Spatial perception and tracking -Relays information to motor cortex |
| Temporal Lobes | -Hearing -Memory Storage -Object and facial recognition |
| Types of Memory | -Autobiographical (Episodic) -Semantic |
| Wernicke's Area | Language comprehension |
| Occipital Lobes | -Visual processes -Visual cortex |
| Dissociation | A disruption in one component of mental functioning but no impairment of another --episodic and somatic memory, amnesia |
| Long-term Potentiation | Process by which connections between neurons are strengthened |
| Consolidation | Process of making memories more permanent |
| Contralateral | The receptive and control centers for one side of the body are in the opposite hemisphere of the brain |
| Ipsilateral | Same side receptive and control centers in a brain hemisphere |
| Cerebral Lateralization & Specialization | Different functions or actions within the brain tend to rely more heavily on one hemisphere or the other or tend to be performed differently in the two hemispheres -- Hemispheric Specialization is not absolute |
| Lesion | Change in structure of a tissue/organ due to injury |
| Direct Stimulation | Direct application of electrical current to the surface of the cerebral cortex |
| Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) | Electromagnetic pulse delivered to a specific part of the brain --Strong pulse inhibits function --Weak pulse can increase function |
| Electroencephalograms (EEG) | Electrodes on a person's scalp pick up brain waves --Good temporal resolution --Poor spatial resolution |
| Structural Imaging | -Computerized Tomography (CT) -Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) |
| Positron Emission Tomography (PET) | Metabolic Measure -Increased blood flow to active areas of the brain --Radioactive isotope |
| Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) | Metabolic Measure -Blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) -Both structure AND activity is seen |
| Neural Net Model | Connectionist Model Parallel distributed processing (PDP) model |
| Change Blindness | Failure to notice changes in visual stimuli when those changes occur during a saccade |
| Visual attention- Capacity Problem | -Selects only relevant information -Filters out irrelevant information |
| Inattentional Blindness | Failure to see an object we are looking at directly because attention is directed elsewhere |
| Connectionism | Theoretical and computational approach used to understand how cognition operates in the brain |
| Connectionism | Connections |
| Aim- Sperling's Experiment | Studying characteristics and processes of visual sensory memory (iconic memory); including- - Capacity - Preservation of iconic memory (decay) (Sperling did a bunch of studies to figure out how much info VSM can hold and how long it can last) |
| Gestalt Theory | -Focused on the whole, rather than individual parts -Descriptive, not explanatory |
| Gestalt Grouping Principles- Pattern Recognition | Law of ... -Proximity -Similarity -Closure -Good continuation/continuity -Symmetry -Figure-ground segregation |
| Principles/Models of Pattern Recognition | -Gestalt grouping Principles -Template approach -Feature detection -Pandemonium -Conceptually-driven pattern recognition |
| Basic Principles- Connectionism (provide example) | -Complex operations = MASSIVE parallel processing --Parallel distributed processing (PDP) models -Networks are composed of 3 unit levels -Connections between units are (+) or (-) -Connection weights vary by "training" -SIMILAR TO HOW BRAIN FUNCTIONS |
| Sperling Experiment Implications/Indications (Conclusions) | -Visual Sensory Memory is very short --VSM< 500 ms -Controlling decay of memory |
| Overview of Attention (brief description) | 1. There's always more stimuli available than we can process at once 2. Limited attention capacity (attention span) 3. Some tasks need more attention to complete than others 4. With practice and knowledge, tasks get easier because muscle memory |
| Different Characterizations of Attention | Input attention -Getting sensory information into the cognitive system -Early cog process -Reflex/Automatic Controlled attention -Deliberate, voluntary allocation of mental effort or concentration |
| Two Models of Selective Attention | Broadbent's Filter Theory and Treisman's Attenuation Theory |
| Broadbent's Filter Theory | -Information is selected based upon the (low-level) physical characteristics of the information -Early selection theory |
| Treisman's Attenuation Theory | -Pattern recognition comes before attention -Late selection theory |
| Treisman's (1960) Study | Auditory dual task procedure but tying to connect the stories e.g. right ear- while bill was walking through the forest/ a bank can lend you money left ear- if you want to buy a car/ a tree fell across his path (32**) |
| Compare Treisman's Study to the Two Models of Selective Attention | Top-down processing influences meaning when attention is diverted** |
| Automatic Processing | Cognitive processes are done with little or no necessary conscious involvement |
| Controlled/Conscious Processing | A deliberate, voluntary allocation of mental effort or concentration |
| Stroop Task | Names of colours are not matching colour of ink that the name is written in... Participants have a tough time reading because the word and colour don't match |
| Findings of the Stroop Task | Distinction between controlled/conscious processing and automatic processing -Automatized language gets in the way of conscious task |
| STM | Refers to the input and storage of new information -Limited capacity -Conscious or unconscious |
| Duration of STM | Up to 30 seconds |
| Brown-Peterson Task | Testing how long unrehearsed information can remain in STM -Participants are shown 3 letters and 3 digits (a number), then asked to count back by threes from the number shown -After amount of time, participants asked to remember the 3 letters |
| Results of the Brown-Peterson Task | -Participants were less efficient at remembering the letters when counting for longer -Recall accuracy (y axis), time spent counting/recall interval (x axis) |
| Challenges to Brown-Peterson Task (Waugh & Norman, 1965) | Brown-Peterson did not account for interference e.g. Presentation time of lists |
| Proactive Interference (PI) | Old interferes with new stimulus recognition |
| Retroactive Interference (RI) | New stimulus interferes with recollection of old information |
| Release from Proactive Interference- Wickens (1972) | Variation of Brown-Peterson task -First trial performance tends to be best/higher average in comparison to later performance (top-down bc semantic trials) --Control- animal, animal, animal (worse) --Experiment- animal, animal, occupation (better) |
| Serial Position Curve | -"U" shape -Remember start and end, lose middle information |
| Standard Explanations for Serial Position Curve (including one piece of evidence for each explanation) -Primacy effects -Recency effects | |
| Baddeley Working Memory Model | Central executive -> Episodic buffer Central executive -> Visuospatial sketchpad Central executive -> Phonological loop |
| Criticisms of Baddeley Working Memory Model | Episodic buffer was added later to address criticisms related to incomplete explanations of memory (integration of information from other components and relations to LTM. |
| Explicit/Declarative Memory | Long-term memory knowledge that can be retrieved and the reflected on consciously |
| Types of Mnemonics | -Method of loci -Peg-word technique |
| Mnemonic Principles | 1. Provide a structure for learning 2. Form durable and distinctive memory traces -Visual images, rhymes, etc. 3. Guide retrieval by providing effective cues for recalling the information |
| 3 Step Sequence of Memory | Encoding -> retention -> retrieval |
| Ebbinghaus' Research | Studied his own memory through relearning task and saving scores --Used self as a participant --Studied memory using nonsense syllables -Create stimuli that is meaningless |
| Ebbinghaus' Research- Major Results | -Forgetting curve/Retention curve -Evidence of overlearning --More frequently repeated list = twice the savings score --Longer lists were remembered better |
| 3 Important Principles of Storage | -Rehearsal -Organization -Imagery (e.g., Rundus (1971), Bower (1969), Schnorr & Atkinson (1969)) |
| Agnosia | A failure or deficit in recognizing objects -Can recognize with other sensory modalities though |
| Auditory Sensory Memory | A brief memory system that receives auditory stimuli and preserves them for some amount of time -Echoic Memory --Temporal event |
| Bonebakker et al. (1996) | Used the word-stem task to demonstrate that learning can occur implicitly without conscious awareness. |
| Posner’s spatial cuing task | Concluded that the switching of attentional focus is a cognitive phenomenon, tied to internal mental mechanisms. --Spotlight attention ---Quicker response time (RT) answers were more accurate during procedure |
| Hemineglect | A disruption/decreased ability to look at something in the neglected (non-dominant side; often left) field of vision and pay attention to it -Deliberate devotion of controlled attention to one side is deficient --Affects input and controlled attention |
| Working Memory Location | STM |
| Measuring STM/WM- Digit Span | -Participants are exposed to a set of digits they must repeat back -If successful, they get a longer list, then another... |
| WM- Faculties associated with Operation Span | -Reading comprehension -Standardized academic tests (SAT) -Attention -Reasoning abilities -General intelligence |
| Dual coding hypothesis (Paivio, 1971) | Words that denote concrete objects, opposed to abstract words, can be encoded into LTM memory twice (one picture and one word) e.g. -Elephant(2 encode) -Justice(1 encode) |
| Encoding specificity | Each item is encoded into a richer memory representation that includes the context it was in during the encoding -Extra info also stored -ANything present during learning can be an active cue for remembering the target later --State-Dependent learning |
| Paired associate task (Schnorr & Atkinson, 1971) | Lists of word pairs are presented to a person. After first presentation, the first word (stimulus) acts as a cue for the second word to-be-produced word (paired associate response) e.g. Dog-Book |
| Implicit/Non-Declarative Memory | Knowledge that can influence thought and behaviour without any necessary involvement of conscious awareness --Automatized |
| Iconic Memory | Visual sensory memory |
| Sperling- Whole Report Condition | Freely recalling as many letters as they could from the whole array |
| Sperling- Partial Report Condition | Participants were cued to recall either the top, middle, or bottom row of the array |
| Partial Report Condition- High Tone | Top row |
| Partial Report Condition- Medium Tone | Middle row |
| Partial Report Condition- Low Tone | Bottom row |
| Whole Report Condition Results | Recall 4-5 items (avg. 37% recall) -Varied exposure time did not change the results (5-500 ms) -Shorter delay periods before tone = more accuracy |
| Span of Apprehension | The number of items recallable after any short display |
| Partial Report Condition Results | Recall avg 76% -Performance would be same on any row |
| Sperling- Decay | Forgetting of VSM information, caused by a loss of information over time --Fading of visual stimulus in sensory memory |
| Ecological Validity | The extent to which findings can be generalized to real life encounters --Problem with Sperling's experiment |
| Averbach and Coriell- Backward Masking | When a later visual stimulus affects perception of an earlier one |
| Averbach and Coriell- Theory of Forgetting (VSM) | Interference |
| Averbach and Coriell- Interference | Later stimuli replace a previous stimulus in sensory memory, thus preventing encoding, which prevents memory construction |
| Sperling- Theory of Forgetting (VSM) | Decay |
| Icon | A visual image that resides in iconic memory --Quickly lost |
| Understanding Gestalt Theory- Principle of Simplicity (3) | Perceptual system tries to create a percept that is- -Simple -Orderly -Stable |
| Gestalt Grouping- Proximity | Objects which are close together form a group e.g. -) is a smile |
| Gestalt Grouping- Similarity | Similar elements form a group ( e.g. Shape, colour, etc. |
| Gestalt Grouping- Closure | Objects are perceived as whole, even if not complete e.g. - - - - > is a line/arrow |
| Gestalt Grouping- Good Continuation/Continuity | We perceive objects as forming smooth continuous patterns e.g. ~~~ |
| Gestalt Grouping- Symmetry | Objects around a center point form a group e.g. ( ) [ ] { } ( ) [ ] { } ( ) [ ] { } |
| Gestalt Grouping- Figure-Ground Segregation | Tendency to structure the visual field into two parts --Figure and background |
| Bistable Percepts | Stimuli can be perceived in one of two different ways e.g. Two batmen or one wolverine? (Gestalt Grouping- Figure-Ground Segregation) |
| Template Approach | Recognizing patterns based on a schema (Stored models of categorizable patterns=schema) e.g. Reading different fonts --"Patterns are not identical from one time to another" ? |
| Problems with Template Approach | -Variability of patterns that we can recognize -Learning |
| Feature Detection Idea that basic features appear in combinations (matching elemental features) e.g. "A H L T" all have a horizontal line as a feature- "-" | |
| Pandemonium* | Pandemonium is a problem solving process for bottom-up type perception -Driven by the stimulus pattern (incoming data) -Supported by parallel processing |
| Weakness of Pandemonium Model | Strictly bottom-up processing, no explanation for top-down effects |
| Conceptually Driven Processing | Conceptually driven processing is a problem solving process for top-down type perception -Context and higher-level knowledge influence lower-level processes |
| Connectionism- 3 Level Units of a Network | --Input units (sensory stimuli) --Hidden units (Internal unit) --Output units (report system's response) |
| Connectionism- Positive vs Negative Connections | Positive = excitatory to connected unit Negative = inhibitory to connected unit |
| Connectionism- "Training" | Learning algorithms -"Weight" is strength of neural connection |
| Errors/Ambiguity in Visual Perception | Perception does not perfectly convey reality (misleading) e.g. Optical illusions |
| Prosopagnosia | Deficit in recognizing faces -Guy that mistook his wife for a hat |
| Apperceptive Agnosia | Deficit in recognizing patterns e.g. Can't replicate shapes bc there's no recognition |
| Associative Agnosia | Deficit in associating meaning and a pattern e.g. Can't tell you what they drew (a ring) |
| Echoic Memory | Auditory Sensory Memory -Brief memory system that receives auditory stimuli and preserves them for some amount of time --TEMPORAL |
| Three-Eared Man Procedure (Darwin, Turvey, and Crowder, 1972) | -Simultaneous presentation of 3 lists of items through headphones at different spatial locations -Light indicates which set to recall --Replicated Sperling's results ---Info was held in the echo much longer than it was held in the icon (lasted 4 sec) |
| 2 Basic Concepts of Attention | (1) Attention is a mental process -Mental process of concentrating effort on a stimulus or a mental event. (2) Attention is a limited mental resource -There is limited mental energy/resources available to power the mental system |
| Input Attention Characteristics | -Alertness/arousal -Orienting reflex or response -Spotlight attention and search |
| Controlled Attention Characteristics | -Selective attention -Mental resources/Conscious processing |
| Input Attention- Alertness and Arousal | The nervous system must be awake, responsive, and able to interact with the environment --Vigilance involved --Implicit and explicit processing involved |
| Vigilance | INPUT ATTENTION The maintenance of attention for infrequent events over time --Decline in performance as time passes |
| Explicit Processing | INPUT ATTENTION Invoking conscious processing- -Awareness that a task is being performed -Awareness of the outcome of that performance (usually) |
| Implicit Processing | Type of processing in which there is no necessary involvement of conscious awareness |
| Input Attention- Orienting Reflex | The reflexive redirection toward an unexpected stimulus e.g. Door slam |
| Attention Capture | INPUT ATTENTION The spontaneous redirection of attention to stimuli in the world based on physical causes e.g. Doorslam |
| Habituation | INPUT ATTENTION A gradual reduction of the orienting response back to baseline --NOT sensory adaptation |
| Input Attention- Spotlight Attention and Visual Search | The mental attention-focusing mechanism that prepares you to encode stimulus information |
| Spotlight Attention | INPUT ATTENTION -Voluntary direction of attention --Prepares brain for encoding stimuli -Narrow/broad search space -Cognitive, not just perceptual --Rapid/automatic function -Doesn't "sweep" continuously like a spotlight; it jumps like saccades |
| Visual Search | TESTING INPUT ATTENTION -Rapid, accurate search for item with a unique feature --Similar RT for 5-30 distractors ---Pop-out effect |
| Visual Search- Conjunction Search | Addition of distractors makes for slower RTs |
| Visual Search- Pop-Out Effect | The target object seems to "pop out" of the display e.g. obvious hidden difference |
| Visual Search- Inhibition of Return | Recently checked locations are mentally marked by attention as places that the search will not return to. -Inhibits responses in locations already searched --Facilitation of return |
| Visual Search- Facilitation of Return | When simply scanning or memorizing, attention returns to a previously fixated location |
| Controlled, Voluntary Attention- Selective Attention | The ability to attend to one source of information while ignoring other ongoing stimuli around us |
| Selective Attention- Inattentional Blindness | People can fail to attend to or process information, even when looking directly at it |
| Selective Attention- The Cocktail Party Effect | Selecting one message in a crowded, noisy environment |
| Selective Attention- Filtering | The mental process of eliminating the distractions and focusing on a particular message or stimulus |
| Selective Attention- Dual Task Procedure (Studying Filtering) | STUDYING FILTERING -Multitasking doesn't work -Two tasks are presented such that one task captures attention as completely as possible -Information overload --Test for accuracy on task involving absorption of information |
| Selective Attention- Shadowing Task | TYPE OF DUAL-TASK PROCEDURE -Two messages, one in each ear -Asked to repeat messages out-loud from the specified ear (shadow message) -Accurate recall in attended ear -Message change in unattended ear is only noticed when difference is major |
| Selective Attention- Mind Wandering | Occurs when attention drifts off task to some other inappropriate line of thought |
| Measuring Mind Wandering | Mind wandering questionnaire and thought sampling |
| Selective Attention- Inhibition | Actively suppresses mental representations of salient, but irrelevant information so that the information's activation level is reduced, perhaps below the resting baseline level |
| Controlled, Voluntary Attention- Attention as a Mental Resource | -Attention is a mental effort; the mental resource that fuels cognitive activity -Limited in quantity |
| Psychological Refractory Period | -Attentional Blink --A brief slow-down in mental processing as a result of having processed another very recent event --Attentional resources not available for a bit when two things happen quickly |
| Length of Attentional Blink | 200-250 ms |
| Attentional Blink Example | Driving and think a kid will cross street so focus on kid to make sure you can drive by without hitting, and dog runs out in front of you, wont be able to process dog that quick because of the focus on the kid (takes a second ish to switch attention) |
| Elastic Attention | Attentional capacity increases with arousal |
| Elastic Attention Example | Elastic attention like becoming suddenly interested/attentive when something you're interested in is mentioned in a boring lecture |
| Automatic and Conscious Processing- Task Performance | Second guessing can take automatic things and consciously fuck them up |
| Strengthening Automaticity | Deliberate practice -Repetition and overlearning |
| Danger of Overlearning | Can hinder flexibility of knowledge/ability to work/adapt |
| Disadvantages of Automaticity | -Difficult to reverse effects of an automated task --Errors of inattention/learn wrong -Action Slips |
| Automaticity- Action Slips | Unintended, often automatic, actions that are inappropriate for the current situation (muscle memory) e.g. Barshi & Healy (1993) -Fixed order did better than random order (9% vs 23%) |
| Hemineglect- Attentional Capacity Issues | Bilateral capacity difficulties |
| Episodic Memory | Autobiographical memory; stores personally experienced events --Not all episodic memories are automatized e.g. Remembering a party |
| Semantic Memory | Stores general world knowledge (meaning), like concepts and categories e.g. Knowing the capital city of Saskatchewan is Regina |
| Preliminary Issues- Long-Term Memory | -Mnemonics -The Ebbinghaus Tradition --1st Systematic study of memory -Metamemory |
| Preliminary Issues- Mnemonic | An active, strategic learning device or method e.g. "The knuckle mnemonic" to remember which months have 30 or 31 days |
| Strengths of Mnemonics | -Material is practiced repeatedly to remember -Material is integrated into an existing memory framework -Mnemonic provides a short-cut way to retrieve the material |
| Mnemonics- Method of Loci (Mind Palace) | Uses known locations as cues for memory items -Visual imagery --When recalling, go through the locations |
| Two Steps in Method of Loci | 1. Choose a known set of locations 2. Form a mental image of each thing you want to remember and place it in a location |
| Example of Method of Loci | Remembering grocery list by associating items with objects in the house |
| Mnemonics- The Peg-Word Technique | A pre-memorized set of words serves as a sequence of mental "pegs" onto which the to-be-remembered material can be "hung" |
| Example of The Peg-Word Technique | Associating things that need to be remembered with distinct tricks - Rhymes - Stuff that would be odd to remember (elaboration of the thing to remember-elaborate information) |
| Memory Effect- Distributed Practice | Study time is spread out over many, shorter sessions -Better than mass practice for LTM e.g. -Going to all your classes |
| Memory Effect- Mass Practice | Study time is grouped together into one long session -Good for STM, not for LTM e.g. -Cramming before an exam |
| Metamemory | Knowledge about one's own memory, including how it works and how it fails to work -Prepares us to learn new information -KNOWING WHAT YOU KNOW |
| Metacognition | Knowledge about one's own cognitive system and it's functioning --Thinking about thinking |
| Episodic Memory Storage- Isolation Effect | Better memory for information that is distinct from the information around it --Also called the "Von Restorff Effect" e.g. -Printing one word in red when all others are in black |
| Important Principles of Storage- Rehearsal (basic descriptions, research examples, and findings) | A deliberate recycling/practicing of STM's contents/storage |
| Rehearsal Research & Findings | Rundus (1971) -Participants learned 20-item lists of words --5 sec per word -People were supposed to rehearse the words aloud, but could rehearse any word the Findings- People wer |
| Rehearsal Research & Findings- Depth Processing | Craik and Lockhart (1972) - Memory is determined not by how long information stays in the system, but how the person processes it -Shallow vs deep processing |
| Depth Processing- Shallow Processing | Leads to poor LTM traces -Used in maintenance rehearsal |
| Depth Processing- Deep Processing | Leads to strong LTM traces -Used in elaborative rehearsal |
| Important Principles of Storage- Organization | The structuring or restructuring of information as it is being stored in memory |
| Organization Research & Findings | Bousfield (1953) -60 items for free recall --Animals, names, vegetables, and professions ---Structure of language helped people recall words as clusters, not in told order --Linguistic organization |
| Organization Research and Findings (2) | Bower (1969)- Controlled and Experiment conditions/groups -People got 4 trials to learn 112 word lists -Cont. Organized, Exp. Random -Organized- Lists with headers -Control- Same structure but randomized words -Organized group had better recall |
| Two Kinds of Rehearsal | Craik and Lockhart (1972) -Maintenance rehearsal -Elaborative rehearsal |
| Maintenance Rehearsal | A low-level, repetitive information recycling -Barely rehearsal, just reminding LTM |
| Elaborative Rehearsal | A more complex rehearsal using the meaning of the information to store and remember it -Make it meaningful |
| Subjective Organization | Organization developed by a person for structuring and remembering information -Individual develops own schema for organizational framework ---Whatever is meaningful to you |
| Important Principles of Storage- Imagery | The mental picturing of a stimulus that affects later recall or recognition |
| Sensory Stores | -VSM/Iconic memory -ASM/Echoic memory |
| Aspects of STM | -Where the immediately present moment is held in consciousness -Active mental effort is expended (Attentional memory) -Where comprehension takes place (stored in a buffer |
| Other Names for Short-Term Memory (7) | -STM -Working memory (modern dynamic definition) -Short-term store -Primary memory -Elementary memory -Intermediate memory -Temporary memory |
| Term difference- Short-Term Memory vs Working Memory | STM- -Older -Input and storage of new info -e.g. remember phone number Working memory- -Newer -Processing and storage -Mental workbench -e.g. Understanding a sentence |
| STM- Bottleneck Metaphor | Lots of information, but only some gets in -Describes limitation of STM --Cannot encode and hold vast quantities of new information ---e.g. Recall random letters in order of appearance-> fnveifnvhrsn |
| Miller's Magical Number 7, Plus or Minus 2 (1950's) | Example of bottleneck effect --Participants could recall 3-5 chunks |
| STM- 3 Ways to Overcome Bottleneck | -Chunking -Recoding -Mnemonic devices |
| Overcoming Bottleneck- Chunking | Grouping information into richer, more complex items or "chunks". |
| Overcoming Bottleneck- Recoding | The process of grouping items together, then remembering the newly formed groups |
| Two Conditions of Successful Recoding | -Time/Resources -Well-learned |
| Overcoming Bottleneck- Mnemonic Devices | Any mental device or strategy that provides a useful rehearsal strategy for storing and remembering material |
| Interpretation of the Brown-Peterson Task Results | Data represents a simple decay function -Interference can impact the speed at which decay occurs --Forgetting due to competition from other stimuli or events (like counting) |
| Challenges to Brown-Peterson Task (Waugh & Norman, 1965)- Decay Hypothesis | If forgetting was caused by decay, then the 16 second group (1 word/second) would have lower recall accuracy |
| Challenges to Brown-Peterson Task (Waugh & Norman, 1965)- Interference Hypothesis | If forgetting was caused by interference, the two groups should be similar |
| Waugh & Norman (1965)- Conclusions | Interference does have to do with forgetting -Major role |
| STM- Memory Retrieval/Recall | Bringing knowledge to the foreground of thinking -Allows us to manipulate or report the information/memory |
| STM- Types of Recall | -Free recall -Serial recall |
| Recall- Free Recall | Recall items in any order e.g. Grocery list |
| Recall- Serial Recall | The items in the exact order in which they were presented e.g. Phone number |
| Standard Explanations for Serial Position Curve- Primacy Effects | Better memory for items in the early position of the list -LTM effect --Start gets best and most rehearsal (STM based on rehearsal) |
| Standard Explanations for Serial Position Curve- Recency Effects | Better memory for items at the end positions of the list -STM effect --Last items in the list are still in STM at time of recall |
| Interference Effects on Serial Standard Explanation | Interference task wipes out the recency effect, but not the primacy effect -All tests start in the same place, pretty much |
| Two Properties of Rehearsal | Keeps information in STM -Refresh in the mind Increases the probability that information will be transferred to LTM |
| Types of STM/Working Memory Models (2) -Multi-store models -Unitary-store models | |
| STM/Working Memory Models- Multi-Store Model Examples | -Atkinson and Shiffrin -Baddeley's working memory model |
| STM/Working Memory Models- Multi-Store Model | Models of memory that have multiple components for how memory works |
| STM/Working Memory Models- Unitary-Store Model | No STM/LTM distinction |
| Baddeley's Working Memory Model- Central Executive | In charge of planning future actions, initiating retrieval and decision processes as necessary, and integrating incoming information - Monitors and coordinates subsystems -Has own pool of resources for performing tasks --Can supply subsystems |
| Baddeley's Working Memory Model- Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad (VSSP) | -Subsystem in WM -Specialized for visual/spatial information --Display/manipulate information ---Mental rotation ---Misremembering |
| WM (VSSP)- Mental Rotation | Mentally turning, spinning or rotating objects in the VSSP of WM |
| WM (VSSP)- 2 Types of Misremembering | -Boundary extension -Representational momentum |
| Misremembering- Boundary Extension | People tend to misremember more of a scene than was actually viewed, as if the boundaries of an image were extended further out |
| Misremembering- Representational Momentum | The phenomenon of misremembering the movement of an object further along its path of travel than where it actually was when it was last seen |
| Baddeley's Working Memory Model- Phonological Loop | -Subsystem in WM -Speech and sound related component responsible for rehearsal of verbal information and phonological processing --Recycles information for immediate recall |
| Phonological Loop- 2 Components | -Phonological store -Articulatory loop |
| Phonological Loop Component- Phonological Store | Passive store -"Inner ear" |
| Phonological Loop Component- Articulatory Loop Active refreshing of information in the phonological store -"Inner voice" | |
| Phonological Loop- Articulatory Suppression Effect | The finding that people have poorer memory for a set of words if they are asked to say something while trying to remember the words -"THE" during memorizing of list |
| Phonological Loop- Phonological Similarity Effect | The finding that memory is poorer when people need to remember a set of words that are phonologically similar, compared to a set of words that are phonologically dissimilar |
| Baddeley's Working Memory Model- Episodic Buffer | The portion of WM where information from different modalities and sources is stored and linked/bound together to form new episodic memories in LTM -Largely dependent on Central Executive portion of WM |
| Dual Task Method | Two tasks are done simultaneously -Can they be independent or do they interfere with one another |
| Auditory Pattern Recognition | -Templates -Feature Detection -Conceptually Driven Processing |
| Auditory Pattern Recognition- Problem of Invariance (Template) The sounds of speech are not invariant from one time to another | |
| Auditory Persistence and Erasure (Crowder & Morton, 1969) | Vocalization Conditions- Silent, Active, Passive Active and passive groups made fewer errors -Interpretation- active and passive groups could rely on echoic memory --Suffix effect |
| Suffix Effect | Inferior recall of the end of the list in the presence of an additional, meaningful, non-list auditory stimulus. Memory Availability |
| Memory Accessibility | Degree to which the memory trace can be retrieved from memory -May not be accessible, even though it’s in the LTM |
| Retrieval Failure | Occurs when the information is available but not accessible -Recall underestimates the amount of information that was learned |
| Amnesia | Loss of memory or memory abilities due to brain damage or disease |
| Retrograde Amnesia | Loss of memory of events BEFORE the injury -Ribot’s Law of temporal gradient?? |
| Anterograde Amnesia | Loss of memory of events AFTER the injury |
| Double Dissociation | Finding reciprocal patterns of disruption (eg. having Wernicke’s aphasia or Broca’s aphasia separately) |
| Dissociation Patient K.C. | Episodic processes disrupted, semantic memory processes intact |
| Dissociation Patient H.M. | Unable to transfer new information into LTM but able to retrieve already stored memories from LTM -Remembers implicitly, not explicitly |
| Critical Brain Structure for Explicit LTM Formation | Hippocampus |
| Repetition Priming | A pervious encounter with information facilitates later processing on the same information (unconsciously) |
| Loftus and Palmer (1974) | Show car accidents and ask how fast they were going when they ___ each other -Broken glass? |
| Collins and Quillian Model | Network model of semantic memory |
| Network Model of Semantic Memory (3 Parts) | -Network -Node -Pathways |
| Network Model-Network | An interrelated set of concepts/body of knowledge |
| Network Model-Node | A point of location in the network representing a single concept |
| Network Model-Pathways | Labeled directional associations between concepts |
| Spreading Activation | The mental activity of accessing and retrieving information from the network -Activates passive concepts –Spreads activation to related nodes (i.e. following the rabbits) |
| Network Model-Propositions | The connection of two nodes in a pathway -ISA -Property pathways hold elements a concept possesses |
| Network Model-Intersection Search | When two spreads of activation collide, an answer is found |
| Problems With Network Model | -Not very flexible -Hierarchical -Cognitive economy |
| Cognitive Economy | The incorrect notion that redundant information is not stored in semantic memory -It is |
| Semantic Relatedness | The distance between two nodes in a network is determined by semantic relatedness, stored closer together in memory for fast retrieval -REVISED NETWORK MODEL ACCOUNTS FOR THIS |
| Feature Comparison Model | Semantic memory is a collection of feature lists -Much simpler than network model –Occam’s razor and fewer assumptions |
| Feature Lists | Contain semantic features (simple, one element characteristics) of each concept stored in memory -Defining features appear at the top of each feature list |
| Characteristic Features | Features that are common but not essential to the meaning of a concept -Bottom of each feature list |
| Feature Comparison | Process of information retrieval in the feature list model |
| Stages of Feature Comparison | 1. Fast global comparison of overlapping features 2. Slow comparison that only occurs when lists have an intermediate amount of overlap -Only defining features used -Fast yes/no vs slow yes/no (i.e. Typicality effects) |
| Problems With Feature Comparison | -No objective way to define a feature as a defining/characteristic feature -Does not account for fuzzy boundaries -Limited feature list |
| Schema | A mental framework or body of knowledge about some topic |
| Scripts | Schematic knowledge that guides our understanding of ordered events |
| Categorization | Combining entities (info, objects, people, events) into meaningful units -Critical to semantic memory organization –Helps make sense of the world |
| Drawbacks of Categorization | Stereotypes |
| Classic View of Categorization | People create and use categories based on a system of rules -Necessary vs sufficient features -Arranged according to scientific taxonomies |
| Categorization-Necessary Features | If not present, not a member of the category |
| Categorization-Sufficient Features | Nothing more is needed to satisfy category membership |
| Characteristics of Categories | -Graded membership -Central tendency |
| Graded Membership | Categories are loose/fuzzy -Some members are “better” fits than others |
| Central Tendency | Mental core/center to the category where the best members are found -Typicality |
| Typicality | The degree to which items are viewed as typical, central members of a category |
| Prototype Theory of Categorization | Comparing new entities to established prototypes |
| Prototypes | The central or core instance of a category |
| Limitations of Prototype Theory | -No information about variability of members -No information about category size |
| Exemplar Theory | People take each experience of encounters they’ve had with that category -Store in memory –Different dog breeds (exemplar) vs prototype dog |
| Explanation-Based Categorization | Semantic categories are theories of the world we create to explain why things are the way they are |
| Types of Explanation-Based Categorization (2) | -Ad hoc categories -Psychological essentialism |
| Ad Hoc Categories | Categories created as needed -Spontaneously |
| Psychological Essentialism | Members of a category are treated as if they have the same underlying property or essence |
| Basic Principles of Semantic Priming (3) | 1. Priming takes time 2. Activation of primed concepts is smaller depending on how far concepts are from the origin 3. Priming effect is reduced across time |
| Prime | Stimulus presented first in hopes of influencing some later process |
| Target | The stimulus that follows the prime |
| Semantic Priming-Facilitation | Prime decreases processing time needed for the target |
| Semantic Priming-Inhibition | Prime increases processing time needed for the target |
| Lexical Memory | The mental lexicon/dictionary where world knowledge is stored -Distinct from conceptual knowledge |
| Anomia | A deficit in word finding |
| Category Specific Deficit | A disruption where a person loses access to one semantic category but not others -Dissociation (eg. disruption in sensory vs functional knowledge) |
| The Normal Everyday Operation of Long-Term Memory | Involves the continual, coordinated, cooperative process of interaction between episodic and semantic memory -Remember life both as personal story and meaning-based concepts |
| Schacter’s 7 Sins of Memory (2 Concepts) | -Sins of omission (info inaccessible) -Sins of commission(info accessible) -Obstruct vs construct |
| Schacter’s 7 Sins of Memory- Sins of Omission | -Transience -Absent-Mindedness -Blocking |
| Schacter’s 7 Sins of Memory- Sins of Commission | -Misattribution -Suggestibility -Bias -Persistence |
| 7SM Transience | Tendency to lose access to information across time (i.e. forgetting, interference, retrieval failure) |
| 7SM Absent-Mindedness | Everyday memory failures in remembering information and intended activities -Insufficient attention/superficial, automatic processing during encoding |
| 7SM Blocking | Temporary retrieval failure or loss of access in either episodic or semantic memory (eg. tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon) |
| 7SM Misattribution | Remembering a fact correctly from a past experience but attributing it to an incorrect source/context |
| 7SM Suggestibility | The tendency to incorporate information provided by others into your own recollection/memory representation |
| 7SM Bias | The tendency for knowledge, beliefs, and feelings to distort recollection of previous experiences and to affect current/future judgements and memory |
| 7SM Persistence | The tendency to remember facts or events that one would rather forget (eg. PTSD) -Intrusive recollections and rumination |
| Metamemory - Source Monitoring | The ability to accurately remember the source of a memory -Distinguishing between real/imagined sources |
| Metamemory- Source Monitoring Failure | Remembering the content of the information but unable to attribute it to a source -Cryptomnesia |
| Cryptomnesia | Unconscious plagiarizing |
| Metamemory -Prospective Memory | Ability to remember to do something in the future |
| 2 Types of Prospective Memory | -Time based and Event based |
| Time-Based Prospective Memory | Remember to do something based on the passage of time (eg. do something by 4pm) |
| Event-Based Prospective Memory | Remember to do something when a certain event occurs (eg. tell mom something when you see her) |
| Metamemory -Judgements of Learning (JOL) | A person makes a prediction, after studying it; will it be remembered on a later memory test? |
| Accuracy of JOL | Immediately after study, estimates tend to be poor -Over and underestimate how well we’ve learned material |
| Metamemory -Feeling of Knowing | An estimate of how familiar something is to you -Recognition of item on a later memory test -Also tip-of-tongue phenomenon bc retrieval is imminent |
| False Memories | Memory of something that did not happen |
| Implanted Memories - Lindsey et al. (2004) | Grade school photos and childhood events (2 true, 1 lie), participants recall everything they could about events in 1st interview, later interviews told to “work at remembering” |
| Lindsey et al. (2004) -Results | No photo vs photo -Visual memory to work from -ACROSS TIME |
| Distorted Memory Components (6) | -Integration -Leading questions -Misinformation effect -Source misattribution -Misinformation acceptance -Overconfidence in memory |
| Distorted Memory Component-Integration | Inappropriate combination of information from different sources or events, combined info becomes linked/fused in memory |
| Distorted Memory Component-Leading Questions | A question that prompts/encourages a desired answer |
| Distorted Memory Component-Misinformation Effect | People claim to remember information that was not in the original experience, but provided later as a piece of information |
| Distorted Memory Component-Source Misattribution | The inability to distinguish whether the original event or some later event was the true source of the information |
| Distorted Memory Component-Misinformation Acceptance | When people accept additional information as having been part of an earlier experience without actually remembering that information -Reconsolidation |
| Reconsolidation | When a memory is retrieved in a malleable state where it can be changed before it is stored in memory again |
| Distorted Memory Component-Overconfidence in Memory | Certainty in the accuracy of memory -Source memory and processing fluency |
| Source Memory | Memory of the exact source of the information |
| Processing Fluency | The ease with which something comes to mind |
| Repressed Memories | Inattentional forgetting of painful or traumatic experiences -Freud |
| Recovered Memories | Spontaneous or deliberate retrieval of repressed memories -Difficult to verify or prove |
| Autobiographical Memory | One’s lifetime collection of personal memories -Personal narrative -Experienced events or the study of these memories |
| Downside to Autobiographical Memories | Inability to forget |
| Bahrick et al. (1975) | Recognition of classmates pictures/names (better) vs recall of classmates pictures/names (worse) |
| Flashbulb Memories | Extremely detailed memories for surprising or unusual events (eg. 9/11 attacks) |
| Flashbulb Memory -Original Explanation | Special memory process |
| Flashbulb Memory -Contemporary View | No special process, just a unique event -Susceptible to similar errors as regular memories |
| Characteristics of Flashbulb Memories (4) | -Novel -Important/Significant (to the person) -Emotional reaction -Rehearsal |
| Linguistics | The academic discipline that studies language -Formal -Gramatical |
| Psycholinguistics | The study of language as it is used and learned by people/ Language |
| 6 Linguistic Universals (Hockett, 1960) | -Semanticity -Arbitrariness -Flexibility of symbols -Naming -Displacement -Productivity/generativity |
| LU Semanticity | Language sounds convey meaning (eg. cough vs. word) |
| LU Arbitrariness | No inherent connection between the units in a language and the meanings referred to by those units (eg. whale is a small word for a big animal, microorganism is a big word for a small thing) |
| LU Flexibility of Symbols | Symbols are not indicative of meaning in language (i.e. we can change or invent new symbols) |
| LU Naming | We assign names to everything in our environment, objective and subjective |
| LU Displacement | The ability to talk about something other than the present moment/ LU Productivity/Generativity |
| Language Competence | Internalized knowledge of language and its rules, which fully fluent speakers of a language have |
| Language Performance | The actual language behaviour a speaker generates (i.e. string of sounds) |
| Language Performance Dysfluencies | Irregularities or errors in otherwise fluent speech |
| Chomsky’s Evaluation of Competence vs Performance | Competence is a purer basis for understanding linguistic knowledge than performance |
| Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis- Linguistic Relativity hypothesis | The language you know shapes the way you think about the events in the world around you |
| 5 Levels of Language Analysis | -Phonology -Syntax -Semantics and Morphology -Conceptual Knowledge -Belief |
| LA-Phonology | The sounds of language and the rule system for combining these sounds -Phonemes |
| Phonemes | The basic sounds that compose language/meaning -English = 46 |
| Phonemic Competence | Extensive knowledge of the rules of permissible sound combinations (eg. GHOTI) |
| LA Syntax | The arrangements of words as elements in a sentence to show their relationship to one another (i.e. sequencing of sentence structure) |
| Syntactic Grammar | The set of rules for ordering words into acceptable, well formed sentences -Descriptive |
| Syntactic Grammar-Word Order | A description of the rules of how words are arranged to form sentences (eg. red fire vs fire red) |
| Syntactic Grammar-Phrase Order | How larger units of language are ordered (eg. I told you to do that yesterday vs I told you yesterday to do that) |
| LA Semantics and Morphology | Retrieving word meaning from memory -Relating words to other words |
| Mental Lexicon | The mental dictionary of words and their meanings |
| Morphemes | The smallest meaningful unit of language |
| Free Morpheme | Morpheme that can stand alone |
| Bound Morpheme | Morpheme that contributes to a word’s meaning but isn’t (eg. “ed”) |
| LA Conceptual Knowledge | Combines meaning of what you experience to concepts that you already have in memory -Refer to semantic memory |
| LA Beliefs | Understanding language with reference to our beliefs about the world (i.e. sarcasm vs sincerity, lying vs truth) |
| Aphasia | A general class of brain disorder where language is disrupted |
| Broca’s Aphasia | Difficulty producing speech |
| Wernicke’s Aphasia | Comprehension of language is impaired -Syntactic aspects are usually preserved |
| Conduction Aphasia | People are unable to repeat what they have just heard |
| Anomia Aphasia | Impairment in the normal ability to retrieve a concept and say its name |
| Agraphia Aphasia | Disruption in writing |
| Alexia Aphasia | Disruption in reading |
| Pure Word Deafness Aphasia | Person cannot understand spoken language |
| Comprehension | The capacity to understand; ~knowing~ |
| Comprehension-Structure Building | First idea -> criteria -> plan |
| Comprehension Structure Building-Laying a Foundation | Foundation around first mentioned idea or character |
| Comprehension Structure Building-Mapping Information | Map or store relevant information onto the current structure |
| Comprehension Structure Building-Shifting to a New Structure | Initiate a new structure to represent a new or different idea |
| Situation Model | A mental representation that serves as a simulation of a real or possible world as described by a text -Implication -Inference |
| Metacomprehension | Monitoring how well we are understanding and will remember information later |
| Region of Proximal Learning | Information that is just beyond a person’s current level of understanding (i.e. backtracking bc no idea wtf was said) |
| Bias in Reasoning | Prior knowledge and beliefs influence our reasoning abilities |
| Confirmation Bias | Seeking confirmatory evidence to support our beliefs and actively not seeking out/ignoring evidence that contradicts our beliefs |
| Dual Process Model of Thinking | System 1 (Intuitive) and System 2 (Analytical) |
| Dual Process Thinking-System 1 | Intuitive -Quick and reflexive - Little mental effort required -Relies on heuristics |
| Dual Process Model of Thinking-System 2 | Analytical -Slow and reflective; deliberate -Requires mental effort |
| Cognitive Miser | Careful with limited mental energy, allows us to simplify the world and attend primarily to what is meaningful and manageable |
| Availability Heuristic | A mental shortcut where you judge an event's likelihood by how easily examples come to mind -Influenced by general world knowledge -Familiarity bias -Salience and vividness blindness |
| General World Knowledge | Our existing knowledge factors into our estimates |
| Familiarity Bias | Judging events as more frequent or important because they are more familiar -Familiarity affects our judgement beyond estimates of frequency |
| Salience and Vividness Biases | A notable or vivid memory influences judgements about the frequency or likelihood of such events |
| Simulation Heuristic | A mental construction/imagining of outcomes -Forcasting the turnout of an event under specific circumstances -Alternatives that are hard to imagine seem less likely to occur |
| Representativeness Heuristic | Judging the likelihood of something based on how well it matches an existing prototype or stereotype |
| Ignoring Base Rates Bias | Ignoring general statistical information (the base rate) in favor of specific, detailed information when making judgments or decisions |
| Using System 1 Heuristics Adaptively | -Satisficing -The recognition heuristic -”Take the best” heuristic |
| Adaptive Heuristic-Satisficing | Making a decision by taking the first solution that satisfies some criterion -”Good enough” heuristic |
| Adaptive Heuristic-The Recognition Heuristic | Basing a decision on whether we recognize the thing to be judged |
| Adaptive Heuristic-”Take the Best” Heuristic | Deciding between alternatives based on the first useful information we find |
Created by:
user-1982862
Popular Psychology sets