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Learning Final Exam
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Parietal lobe | Location of the somatosensory cortex |
| Temporal lobe | Location of the auditory cortex |
| Occipital lobe | Location of the visual cortex |
| Declarative memory | |
| Unimodal association cortex | Also called modality-specific, it receives input from primarily the primary sensory cortex of the specific sensory modality. |
| Heteromodal association cortex | Also called higher-order, it carries out the highest order mental functions that combines different types of information |
| Network of neurons located in different cortical areas | Where more complex memories that involve multiple sensory modalities are stored |
| Medial temporal lobe | Part of the brain known to be necessary for encoding declarative memories, and damage to this part is known to cause anterograde amnesia |
| Anterograde amnesia | A severe impairment in the ability to form new declarative memories |
| Fornix | A band of white tissue in the brain that contains the axons of basal forebrain neurons that project to the hippocampus |
| Frontal cortex in memory encoding | Projects to the hippocampus and may regulate what information gets encoded |
| Basal forebrain in memory encoding | Regulates what information gets stored by altering neural activity in the hippocampus |
| Retrograde amnesia | Loss of memories for events that occurred before the injury |
| Ribot gradient | Retrograde memory loss is worse for events that occurred shortly before the injury than for events that occurred in the distant past |
| More recent memories | The type of memories that are the most vulnerable to retrograde amnesia |
| Standard consolidation theory | The hippocampus and medial temporal lobe structures are required for the initial storage and retrieval of an episodic memory, but their contribution diminishes over time until the cortex is capable of retrieving the memory without hippocampal help |
| Multiple trace theory | When an event is experienced, it can be stored as an episodic memory by an ensemble of neurons in the hippocampus and in the neocortex. The hippocampus keeps track of episodic info for memories |
| Slow wave sleep | A phase of sleep characterized by large, slow oscillations in the brain that are highly synchronized over wide brain areas |
| Importance of slow wave sleep | During slow-wave sleep, networks of neurons in the hippocampus that were active during the day become active again, rapidly and spontaneously replaying activity patterns, suggesting sleep is important for memory consolidation |
| Skill memory | Remembering how to do things |
| Skill | An ability to perform a task that can improve over time through practice |
| Perceptual-motor skill | Learned movement patterns guided by sensory inputs |
| Examples of perceptual-motor skills | Hockey, gymnastics, soccer, darts, ping-pong |
| Cognitive skill | A skill that requires problem solving or the applicaiton of strategies |
| Examples of cognitive skill | Chess or poker |
| Examples of complex skills | Playing a musical instrument, typing an essay on a computer |
| Perceptual component of playing a guitar | Seeing the notes and strings |
| Motor component of playing a guitar | Movements with fingers |
| Cognitive component of playing a guitar | Reading and interpreting the sheet music |
| Perceptual component of typing an essay | Seeing the keys |
| Motor component of typing an essay | Movements with fingers |
| Cognitive component of typing an essay | Reading and conceptualizing ideas |
| Skill memories vs. episodic and semantic memories: skill memory | Difficult to convey except by direct demonstration, tend to be implicit memories, require several repetitions, tend to be long-lasting |
| Skill memories vs. episodic and semantic memories: episodic and semantic memories | Can be communicated flexibly in different formats, are explicit memories that are consciously accessible, and can be acquired in a single exposure |
| Closed skill | A skill that involves performing predefined movements that, ideally, never vary |
| Open skill | A skill in which movements are made on the basis of predictions about changing demands of the environment |
| Closed skill examples | Conveyor belt workers, drills for most sports, gymnastic routines, darts |
| Open skill examples | Games in sports, soccer, ping pong |
| Perceptual-motor skills | The type of skills thought to develop first in humans and that are more prevalent across animal species |
| Power law of practice | The degree to which each new practice session improves performance diminishes; learning occurs quickly at first and then slows down |
| Feedback | Enhances skill learning along with practice |
| Massed practice | Concentrated, continuous practice of a skill |
| Spaced practice | Practice of a skill that is spread out over several sessions |
| Constant practice | Practice involving a constrained set of materials and skills |
| Variable practice | Practice involving the performance of skills in a wide variety of contexts |
| Gradual practice | Incrementally increasing the difficulty as training progresses |
| Ideal practice schedule for ease and high retention | Use variable practice, gradual practice, and spaced practice |
| Serial reaction time task | Measures implicit learning. There are two groups, one that does random trials where participants press keys in an unpredictable order in response to visual cues, and sequential trials where participants press keys in a repeating sequence of ~12 |
| Implicit learning | Learning that happens incidentally, without awareness of what has been learned |
| Motor program | A sequence of movement that an organism can perform automatically. They are formed through extensive practice and are desirable because they expend less energy than normal |
| Fitts's 3-stage model of skill learning | 1. Cognitive stage, 2. Associative stage, 3. Autonomous stage |
| Cognitive stage | When an individual must actively think to encode and perform a skill and performance is based on rules that can be verbalized. (Ex. using written instructions to set up a tent) |
| Associative stage | When learners begin to use stereotyped actions in performing a skill and rely less on actively recalled memories of rules. (Ex. Setting up a tent in a fixed sequence without instructions) |
| Autonomous stage | When a skill or subcomponents of the skill become motor programs and thinking too much can impair performance. (Ex. Setting up a tent while carrying on a discussion about politics) |
| Rotary pursuit task | Individuals keep track of a stylus above a fixed point on a rotating disk. Practice decreases the effects of prior experience and increases the genetic influences on learning skills |
| Talent | A person's genetically endowed ability to perform a skill with little effort |
| Transfer of training | Transfer of skill memories to novel situations |
| Transfer specificity | Restricted applicability of skills to specific situations |
| Identical elements theory | Transfer of learned abilities to novel situations depends on the number of elements in the new situation that are identical to those in the situation in which the skills were encoded |
| Learning set formation | The ability to learn novel tasks rapidly based on frequent experiences with similar tasks |
| Skill decay | Loss of a skill due to non-use, usually as a function of time/lack of use and retrospective interference |
| Parts of the basal ganglia | Striatum, globus pallidus, substantia nigra, subthalamic nucleus, dorsal striatum (caudate and putamen), and ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens) |
| Functions of the basal ganglia | Discriminative stimulus and response association learning in operant conditioning, learning, planning, and producing skilled movements, and perceptual-motor and cognitive skill learning |
| Basal ganglia in memory | Involved in initiating and maintaining movement (regulate velocity, amplitude, and direction), and is especially important for non-declarative memory |
| Parkinson's disease | Is caused by clumps of protein that kill dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra neurons. Known for impairments in perceptual-motor skill learning |
| Alzheimer's disease | Categorized by a loss of tissue in the temporal lobe and hippocampi and thinning of the cerebral cortex and widening of the sulci. Known for impairments in declarative memory |
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