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Unit 2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Perception | The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to make it meaningful |
| Bottom-up Processing | Analysis that starts at the sensory level and works up to higher levels of processing |
| Top-down Processing | Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations |
| Schema | A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information |
| Perceptual Set | A predisposition to perceive things in a certain way |
| Gestalt Psychology | An approach to psychology that emphasizes that the whole is different from the sum of its parts |
| Closure | The perceptual tendency to fill in gaps in order to perceive a complete image |
| Proximity | Objects that are close to each other tend to be perceived as belonging together |
| Similarity | Objects that are similar in appearance are more likely to be perceived as belonging together |
| Figure and Ground | The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground) |
| Attention | Focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events |
| Selective Attention | The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus |
| Cocktail Party Effect | The ability to focus one's auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli, much like tuning into a single voice at a noisy party |
| Inattentional Blindness | Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere |
| Change Blindness | Failing to notice changes in the environment |
| Binocular Depth Cues | Depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes |
| Retinal Disparity | A binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing imagines from the retinas in the two eyes. the brain computes distance- the greater the disparity/ difference between the two images, the closer the object |
| Convergence | A binocular cue for perceiving Depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object |
| Monocular Depth Cues | Depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone |
| Relative Size | If two objects are known to be of similar size, we perceived the one that casts a smaller retinal image as farther away |
| Texture Gradient | The tendency for textured surfaces to appear to become smaller and finer as distance from the viewer increases |
| Linear Perspective | Parallel lines, such as railroad tracks, appear to converge with distance. The more the lines converge, the greater their perceived distance |
| Interposition | If one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceived it as closer |
| Perceptual Constantcies | Perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes. size, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change |
| Apparent Movement | The perception that a stationary object is moving |
| Prototypes | A mental image or best example of a category |
| Assimilation | Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas |
| Accommodation | Adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information |
| Algorithms | A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem |
| Heuristics | A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms |
| Representativeness Heuristic | Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information |
| Availability Heuristic | Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common |
| Mental Set | A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past |
| Priming | The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response |
| Framing | The way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments |
| Gambler's Fallacy | The fallacy of thinking that future probabilities are altered by past events, when in reality they are unchanged. |
| Sunk-cost Fallacy | Making decisions about a current situation based on what one has previously invested in the situation |
| Executive Functions | Higher order thinking processes that include planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision-making |
| Creativity | The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas |
| Divergent Thinking | Expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions |
| Convergent Thinking | Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution |
| Functional Fixedness | The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving |
| Metacognition | Thinking about thinking. Refers to the processes used to plan, monitor, and assess one's understanding and performance |
| Intelligence | Mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations |
| g (General Intelligence) | A factor that underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test |
| Multiple Intelligences | Theory that suggests that there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence |
| Mental Age | A measure of intelligence test performance devised by the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance |
| Chronological Age | The age of an individual expressed as time elapsed since birth |
| Standardization | Defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group |
| Construct Validity | The extent to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular hypothetical construct |
| Predictive Validity | The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict |
| Split-Half Reliability | A measure of reliability in which a test is split into two parts and an individual's scores on both halves are compared |
| Stereotype Threat | A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype |
| Stereotype Lift | When awareness of positive expectations improves performance on tasks |
| Flynn Effect | The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations |
| Achievement Tests | Tests designed to assess what a person has learned |
| Aptitude Tests | Tests designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn |
| Fixed Mindset | The belief that abilities are fixed and unchangeable |
| Growth Mindset | The belief that abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work |
| Explicit Memory | Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" |
| Episodic Memory | The ability to recall and mentally re-experience specific episodes from one's personal past |
| Semantic Memory | Memory for factual information |
| Implicit Memory | Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection |
| Procedural Memory | A type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits |
| Prospective Memory | Remembering to perform a future action at the appropriate time that you previously intended to accomplish |
| Long-term Potentiation | An increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation |
| Working Memory Model | An updated version of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information |
| Central Executive | The part of working memory that directs attention and processing |
| Phonological Loop | The part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information |
| Visuospatial Sketchpad | The part of working memory that holds and processes visual and spatial information |
| Multi-Store Model of Memory | A model that describes memory as consisting of thee distinct stages; sensory, short-term, and long-term |
| Sensory Memory | The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system |
| Iconic Memory | A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli |
| Echoic Memory | A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli |
| Short-term Memory | Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing |
| Long-term Memory | The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system |
| Automatic Processing | Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information |
| Encoding | The processing of information into the memory system |
| Storage | The retention of encoded information over time |
| Retrieval | The process of getting information out of memory storage |
| Levels of Processing Model | Suggests that memory retention is directly related to the depth of mental processing |
| Shallow Encoding | Processing information based on its surface characteristics |
| Deep Encoding | Processing information based on its meaning |
| Structural Encoding | Shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus |
| Phonemic Encoding | Encoding of sounds, especially the sounds of words |
| Semantic Encoding | The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words |
| Method of Loci | A mnemonic device that involves imagining placings items you want to remember along a route you know well, or in specific locations in a familiar room or building |
| Chunking | Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically |
| Hierarchies | Systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific classes |
| Spacing Effect | The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice |
| Memory Consolidation | The neural storage of a long-term memory |
| Massed Practice | Cramming information all at once |
| Serial Position Effect | Our tendency to recall best the first and last items in a list |
| Primary Effect | The tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well |
| Recency Effect | The tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well |
| Maintenance Rehearsal | Repeating stimuli in their original form to retain them in short-term memory |
| Elaborative Rehearsal | The linking of new information over time through the storage and retrieval of information |
| Memory Retention | The ability to retain information over time through the storage and retrieval of information |
| Autobiographical Memory | A special form of episodic memory, consisting of a person's recollections of his or her new life experiences |
| Retrograde Amnesia | An inability to retrieve information from one's past |
| Anterograde Amnesia | An inability to form new memories |
| Infantile Amnesia | The inability to remember events from early childhood |
| Retrieval | The process of getting information out of memory storage |
| Recall | A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier |
| Recognition | A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned |
| Retrieval Cues | Stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory |
| Context-Dependent | Improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same |
| Mood-Congruent Theory | The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's mood |
| State-Dependent Memory | Information is learned in a particular state of mind is more easily recalled in that same state |
| Encoding Failure | The failure to process information into memory |
| Proactive Interference | The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information |
| Retroactive Interference | The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of prior learning |
| Repression | The basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories |
| Constructive Memory | Memory that is constructed from inferences as well as input information |
| Memory Consolidation | The process by which memories became stable in the brain |
Created by:
o.t.2001
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