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Learning Exam 3
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Continuous reinforcement schedule | A reinforcement schedule in which every instance of the response is followed by the reinforcer |
| Partial reinforcement schedule | A reinforcement schedule in which only some instances of the response are followed by the reinforcer |
| Post-reinforcement pause | In operant conditioning, a brief pause in responding that follows delivery of the reinforcer |
| Fixed-interval (FI) schedule | A reinforcement schedule in which the first response after a fixed amount of time is reinforced |
| Variable-ratio (VR) schedule | A reinforcement schedule in which a specific number of responses, on average, must occur before a reinforcer is delivered |
| Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule | A reinforcement schedule in which a specific number of responses must occur before a reinforcer is delivered |
| Variable-interval (VI) schedule | A reinforcement schedule in which the first response after a fixed amount of time, on average, is reinforced |
| Yoked together | The animals receive the same number of outcomes, but one animal receives access to the outcome regardless of their own actions |
| Concurrent reinforcement schedule | The organism can choose between several possible responses, each leading to a different outcome |
| Matching law of choice behavior | An organism's response patterns will closely mimic the relative rates of reinforcement for each possible response |
| Delay discounting | The progressive reduction (or discounting) of the subjective value of a reward the longer it is delayed |
| Primary motor cortex | Precentral gyrus, sends motor commands to neurons in the spinal cord |
| Dorsal striatum | Plays a critical role in operant conditioning, specifically the ability to learn associations based on feedback about reinforcement and punishment |
| Orbital frontal cortex | Receives inputs that convey the full range of sensory modalities plus visceral sensations. Outputs travel to brain areas, including the striatum, where they can help determine which motor responses are executed. It codes for specific predicted outcomes |
| Mesocortical, mesolimbic, mesotriatal | Major dopamine pathways in the brain |
| Behavioral economics | The study of how organisms allocate their time and resources among possible options |
| Mesocortical pathway | In the prefrontal cortex, affects cognition and executive functions |
| Mesolimbic pathway | In the medial orbital frontal cortex, cingulate cortex, nucleus accumbens, hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus, and the amygdala, affects reward and emotion |
| Mesostriatal pathway | Also called the nigrostriatal pathway, in the striatum (putamen and caudate), affects movement of |
| Substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) | A part of the basal ganglia that contains dopamine-producing neurons projecting to the striatum |
| Hedonic value | The subjective "goodness" of a reinforcer, or how much we "like" it |
| Motivational value | Means how much we "want" a reinforcer and how hard we are willing to work to obtain it. It best describes the function of dopamine in the brain |
| Incentive salience hypothesis | The role of dopamine in operant conditioning is to signal how much the animal "wants" a particular outcome. That is, how motivated the animal is to work for it |
| Addictive drugs | Cause larger magnitudes of dopamine release and dopamine release continues to increase even after repeated use although it's no longer pleasurable |
| Prediction error with dopamine (DA) signaling | Increased DA signaling comes from an unexpected reward. Decreased DA signaling comes from an expected reward that did not come. After operant conditioning, increased DA comes from a stimulus that signals a likely reward |
| Opioids | All substances that bind to opioid receptors, including endogenous, synthetically, and naturally derived substances |
| Endorphins | Mu receptor, creates analgesia, sedation, euphoria, and respiratory depression (which is the main target of prescribed and abused opioids) |
| Enkephalin | Delta receptor, creates analgesia and improved mood |
| Dynorphin | Kappa receptor, creates analgesia, dysphoria and depressed mood, and dissociative and hallucinogenic effects |
| Opioid receptors | Indirectly open potassium channels and indirectly block voltage-gated calcium channels |
| Opioids activate dopamine signaling | Opioids bind to opioid receptors on GABAergic neurons in the VTA, and opioids receptors tend to have an inhibitory effect. Binding causes a reduction in the amount of GABA released, thus creating more dopamine signaling |
| Ventral tegmental area (VTA) | Hotspot for dopaminergic neurons |
| Generalization | The transfer of past learning to novel events and problems |
| Discrimination learning | The process by which animals or people learn to respond differently to different stimuli |
| Concept formation | The process by which we learn about new categories of entities in the world, usually based on common features |
| Generalization gradient | A curve showing how physical changes in stimuli correspond to changes in behavior |
| Consequential region | A set of stimuli in the world that share the same consequence as a stimulus whose consequence is already known |
| Errorless discrimination learning | A training procedure in which a difficult discrimination is learned by starting with an easy version of the task and proceeding to incrementally harder versions as the easier ones are mastered |
| Sensory preconditioning | Training in which presentation of two stimuli together as a compound results in generalization about what is known about one of these stimuli to the other |
| Acquired equivalence | Generalization paradigm in which prior training in stimulus equivalence increases the amount of generalization between two stimuli, even if those stimuli are superficially dissimilar |
| Negative patterning | A behavioral paradigm in which the appropriate response to individual cues is positive, whereas the appropriate response to their combination (pattern) is negative (no response) |
| Examples of generalization in classical conditioning | The Little Albert experiment, where the child learned to fear a white rat, but also was afraid of similar looking stimuli, such as a furry white toy or a white beard. (CC because they had a US, loud noise, a UR, crying, a neutral stimulus, a CR and CS) |
| Examples of generalization in operant conditioning | When a dog is trained to sit on command at home but also sits when it is given the same command at the park or at another unfamiliar setting. (OC because SD changes, R and O stay the same) |
| Promote discrimination learning with two similar stimuli | You can promote discrimination learning with two similar stimuli by using errorless discrimination learning like Jenkins did in 1962 so the subjects are less likely to give up, and so they can gradually grow in their discrimination between the stimuli |
| Discrimination learning v. perceptual learning | Perceptual learning is where experience with a stimuli makes it easier to distinguish between stimuli in the future, but discrimination learning is where one learns how to respond differently rather than just to tell the difference between two stimuli |
| Blocking | A two-phase training paradigm in which prior conditioning with one cue (CS1 US) blocks later learning of a second cue when the two are paired together in the second phase of the training (CS1 + CS2 US) |
| Negative patterning with classical conditioning | Tone + airpuff US = blinking, Light + airpuff US = blinking, but Tone + light = no blinking after conditioning |
| Concept | An internal psychological representation of a real or abstract entity |
| Category | A division or class of entities in the world |
| Prototype | The central tendency or idealized version of a category |
| Inductive interference | A logical inference that is probably (but not necessarily) true and is usually based on attempts to draw a general rule from one or more specific instances or premises |
| Discrimination | Unfair differential treatment of individuals on the basis of the group to which they are perceived to belong |
| Stereotype | A set of beliefs about the attributes of the members of a group |
| Confirmation bias | Once we have formed a stereotype about members of another group, we are more likely to pay attention to examples that confirm this stereotype |
| Why are distributed representation networks of nodes with multiple layers better at modeling generalization? | Because single-layer network models that use discrete-component representations cannot learn the negative-patterning problem, and |
| Distributed representation | A representation in which information is coded as a pattern of activation distributed across many different nodes |
| Receptive field | Region of sensory space or range of sensory stimulus over which a sensory stimulus can alter a neuron's firing rate |
| Brain regions involved in discrimination and generalization | Nucleus basalis and hippocampus |
| Nucleus basalis | A small group of neurons located in the basal forebrain; these neurons deliver acetycholine to the cortex, enabling cortical plasticity, and receives information from other brain regions during learning |
| Acetylcholine (ACh) | A neurotransmitter that has many functions in the brain, including the promotion of neuronal plasticity |
| Hippocampus in generalization | Serves as an information gateway for info learned about relationships between stimuli, and lesions impair sensory preconditioning and acquired equivalence learning |
| Hippocampus | The part of the brain that William Scoville removed from patient H.M. |
| Retrograde amnesia | The loss of past memories. Patient H.M. struggled with this a little bit after his surgery |
| Anterograde amnesia | The inability to make new memories. Patient H.M. suffered from this after his surgery |
| Engram | The supposed physical change in the brain that forms the basis of a memory (also referred to as a memory trace) |
| Theory of equipotentiality | Memories are not stored in one area of the brain; rather, the brain operates as a whole to store memories |
| Episodic memory | Memory for personal experience of specific autobiographical events; it includes information about the spatial and temporal contexts in which the event occurred |
| Semantic memory | Memory for facts or general knowledge about the world, including general personal information |
| Declarative memory | A broad class of memories, both semantic and episodic, that can typically be verbalized or explicitly communicated in some other way |
| Non-declarative memory | Includes skill memory and other types of learning that do not fall under either the episodic or semantic memory categories and that are not always consciously accessible or easy to verbalize |
| Implicit memory | Memory that occurs without the learner's awareness: conscious awareness of learning a skill can occur but it's not necessary for these memories to form |
| Explicit memory | A category of memory that includes semantic and episodic memory and that consists of memories of which the person is aware: you know that you know the information |
| Semantic memory in nonhumans | Dogs can remember commands; rats can navigate mazes because they know that food is in one of the ends of the maze |
| Episodic memory in nonhumans | Scrub jays can remember where they stored food and how long ago they stored it; this kind of memory requires a conscious sense of self and a subjective sense of time passing |
| Encoding | Converting an experience or information into a form or neurobiological change that can be stored in the brain |
| How to improve memory encoding | Relating new information to prior knowledge (placing an object in a familiar space), and using the levels-of-processing effect |
| Levels-of-processing effect | Deeper processing (such as thinking about the semantic meaning of a word) leads to better recall of the information than shallow processing (such as thinking about the spelling or pronunciation of a word) |
| Retrieval | Process by which we access a stored memory in the brain and then bring it to conscious awareness |
| Contrast episodic and semantic memory | E: autobiographical events we remember, are attached to a spatial and temporal context about an event you experienced, are weakened by exposure to similar events S: memories of facts or general knowledge we know, are strengthened by repetition |
| Compare episodic and semantic memory | Both are described as declarative memory, and both are accessible to our consciousness meaning we are aware that we can remember an event or that we know some facts |
| How to improve memory retrieval | Encoding specificity effect, transfer-appropriate processing effect, and testing effect |
| Encoding specificity effect | Retrieval is more likely to be successful if the conditions at recall are similar to those that occurred at encoding (you'd do better on the exam if you were in the same room you learned the information in) |
| Transfer-appropriate processing (TAP) effect | Memory will be best when the way in which info is processed at encoding matches the way it is processed at retrieval (if a test involves physical attributes or sounds of a word, superficial processing during learning may be preferable) |
| Testing effect | The act of taking a test can serve as a powerful enhancer of later memory for the information tested (desirable difficulties phenomenon, where struggling to recall info can promote retention of that info later) |
| Free recall | A memory test that involves simply generating requested information from memory |
| Cued recall | A memory test that involves some kind of prompt or cue to aid recall |
| Recognition | A memory test that involves picking out a studied item from a set of options |
| Retention curve | Forgetting or relearning as a function of time since initial learning, which concluded that forgetting occurs quickly, int he first few hours or days |
| Interference | Reduction in the strength of a memory due to overlap with the content of other memories |
| Source monitoring errors | Occur when we remember info but are mistaken about the specific episode that is the source of that memory |
| False memory | Memory for events that never actually happened, and can occur when people are prompted to imagine missing detail |
| Consolidation period | A time window during which new memories are vulnerable and easily lost |
| Reconsolidation | Each time an old (presumably consolidated) memory is recalled or reactivated, it may become vulnerable again |
| Passive forgetting | Occurs as a function of time: older info is more likely to be forgotten than more recently acquired info |
| Proactive interference | Disruption of new learning by previously stored information |
| Retroactive interference | Disruption of old (previously stored) information by more recent learning |
| Directed forgetting | Participants' memory was worse for studied word pairs when they had been instructed to forget than for pairs they had been instructed to remember, or control pairs they had not seen since the original study phase |
| Electroconvulsive therapy | Sending small electric currents through the brain, intentionally causing a brief seizure. Reactivating memories right before this makes them vulnerable to disruption by it |
| Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) | Sending gentle currents into specific areas of the brain, influencing activity of already active neurons rather than triggering action potentials. When applied during reactivation, recall is often stronger later |
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