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Judgment
Judgment, Decision Making, and Intelligence Theories
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the two types of thinking in dual-process theories? | Controlled and conscious thinking (System II) and automatic and unconscious thinking (System I). |
| What characterizes System I thinking? | It is fast, automatic, associative, and relies on intuition. |
| What characterizes System II thinking? | It is slow, controlled, logical, and conscious. |
| What is bounded rationality? | The idea that rational decision making is limited by cognitive abilities, available information, and time. |
| What is a heuristic? | A mental shortcut that allows people to efficiently solve problems and make judgments |
| What is the representativeness heuristic? | A mental shortcut for judging likelihood based on resemblance to a mental prototype, often ignoring base rates. |
| What is the availability heuristic? | A mental shortcut for estimating the frequency or probability of an event based on how easily examples come to mind. |
| What is the affect heuristic? | A mental shortcut that relies on feelings associated with objects and events to make judgments and decisions. |
| What is anchoring in decision making? | The tendency to heavily weigh the first piece of information encountered when making decisions. |
| What is confirmation bias? | The tendency to seek and weigh evidence that confirms preexisting beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence. |
| What is framing in decision making? | The way a set of choices is described, which can influence decision outcomes by shifting the decision maker's reference point. |
| What is loss aversion? | The tendency to prefer avoiding losses over acquiring equivalent gains, influencing riskier choices. |
| What is the general intelligence (g factor)? | A general mental ability hypothesized by Charles Spearman that is required for virtually any mental test. |
| What are the two components of general intelligence according to Spearman? | Fluid intelligence (ability to deal with new problems) and crystallized intelligence (accumulated knowledge and skills). |
| What is belief perseverance? | The tendency for people to resist changing their beliefs even when faced with disconfirming evidence |
| What is the significance of the 'WYSIATI' concept? | It stands for 'What You See Is All There Is,' indicating that people often base decisions on limited information. |
| How can framing influence decision making? | By presenting the same information in different ways, it can lead to different choices based on perceived gains or losses. |
| What is the role of cognitive biases in decision making? | Cognitive biases can lead to systematic errors in judgment and decision making, affecting outcomes negatively. |
| What is the purpose of 'nudges' in choice architecture? | To design choices that lead to desired outcomes without coercion, often using default options. |
| What is the impact of cognitive overload on decision making? | It can lead to reliance on automatic thinking (System I) rather than more deliberate decision making (System II). |
| What is the difference between fluid and crystallized intelligence? | Fluid intelligence involves problem-solving in novel situations, while crystallized intelligence involves knowledge gained from experience. |
| What is the effect of time pressure on decision making? | It can lead individuals to rely more on automatic thinking and heuristics, potentially compromising decision quality. |
| How can one mitigate the effects of confirmation bias? | By actively seeking out and considering opposing viewpoints and evidence |
| What is the relationship between heuristics and cognitive biases? | Heuristics are mental shortcuts that can lead to cognitive biases, resulting in flawed decision making. |
| What is the significance of the study by Strack & Mussweiler (1997) regarding anchoring? | It demonstrated how initial anchors can significantly influence estimates, even when the anchors are irrelevant. |
| What are Robert Sternberg's three types of intelligences? | Analytical, creative, and practical intelligences. |
| What is the theory of Multiple Intelligences proposed by Howard Gardner? | It suggests that there are different kinds of intelligences that are relatively independent from each other. |
| What is savant syndrome? | A condition in developmentally disabled individuals that involves unusual talents contrasting with low levels of general intelligence. |
| How did Edward G. Boring define intelligence? | As a measurable capacity defined by performance on intelligence tests. |
| What was the purpose of the intelligence test developed by Alfred Binet in 1904? | To identify and support lower-performing school children. |
| What does 'mental age' refer to in intelligence testing? | A number representing the average age at which children perform closest to a given child's score on an intelligence test. |
| What classifications can be made based on a child's mental age? | Bright (like older children), typical, or dull (like younger children). |
| Who adapted Binet's test to create the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test? | Lewis Terman. |
| How is the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) score calculated? | By dividing a child's mental age by their chronological age and multiplying by 100. |
| What are achievement tests designed to measure? | How much a person has learned over a certain period of time. |
| What do aptitude tests measure? | A person's potential to learn new skills. |
| What is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)? | An intelligence test composed of subtests that yield a composite score reflecting overall ability. |
| What are the three criteria for a useful intelligence test? | Standardization, reliability, and validity. |
| What historical agenda was associated with early intelligence test developers? | Promoting eugenics and forced sterilizations of 'feebleminded' individuals. |
| What are some faulty assumptions of eugenicists regarding intelligence? | That intelligence is static, can be precisely measured, and can be expressed as a single number. |
| What is the 'bandwidth tax' in relation to intelligence? | The cognitive load that affects performance on intelligence tests due to situational and social factors. |
| What is stereotype threat? | The concern that one's performance might confirm a negative stereotype about their group. |
| How can anxiety before a test affect performance? | It can lead to underperformance due to worry about failure. |
| What is heritability in the context of intelligence? | An indication of how much variation in intelligence is due to genetic differences. |
| What role does an enriching developmental environment play in intelligence? | It profoundly influences intelligence by providing opportunities for cognitive stimulation. |
| What is the self-fulfilling prophecy in education? | A cycle where expectations about a student's abilities can influence their actual performance. |
| What are fixed and growth mindsets regarding intelligence? | A fixed mindset believes intelligence is unchanging, while a growth mindset believes it can be developed. |
| What impact can socioeconomic status have on intelligence outcomes? | Higher socioeconomic status can provide more enriching environments and experiences for children. |
| What is the significance of early intervention programs for children in impoverished environments? | They have been shown to effectively increase intelligence outcomes later in life. |
| Substitution | Replacing a cognitively difficult task with a simpler one (usually happens unconsciously) |
| What is intelligence | The capability to think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, reason, plan, solve problems, learn from experience, and acquire new knowledge |
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skyfalls
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