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Psychology: Learning
Psychology: Learning Theories, Classical & Operant Conditioning, Reinforcement
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Learning | An enduring change in behavior resulting from prior experience. |
| Non-associative learning | Change in the magnitude of a reflex with repetition of the eliciting stimulus. |
| Associative learning | Making connections between stimuli or between stimuli and behavioral responses. |
| Habituation | A form of non-associative learning by which an organism becomes less responsive to a repeated stimulus. |
| Sensitization | A form of non-associative learning by which an organism becomes more sensitive, or responsive, to a repeated stimulus. |
| Classical Conditioning | A passive form of learning by which an association is made between a reflex-eliciting stimulus and other stimuli. |
| Unconditioned stimulus (US) | A stimulus that produces a reflexive response without prior learning. |
| Unconditioned response (UR) | The response that is automatically generated by the unconditioned stimulus. |
| Conditioned stimulus (CS) | A stimulus that has no prior positive or negative association but comes to elicit a response after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus. |
| Conditioned response (CR) | A response that occurs in the presence of the conditioned stimulus after an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus is learned. |
| Acquisition | The initial learning of an association between the unconditioned and conditioned stimuli. |
| Generalization | The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus. |
| Discrimination | Learning to respond to a particular stimulus but not similar stimuli, thus preventing overgeneralizations. |
| Fear Conditioning | Negative associations can be learned extremely rapidly and are easily generalized, even after a single experience. |
| PTSD | People who experience post-traumatic stress disorder may be stricken with anxiety for years after the event. |
| Amygdala | The region next to the hippocampus in the medial temporal lobe that fear conditioning depends on. |
| Little Albert | An 11-month-old infant conditioned to fear a white rat by John Watson and Rosalie Rayner. |
| Acquisition phase | The phase in which a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) to elicit a conditioned response (CR). |
| Extinction | An active learning process in which there is a weakening of the conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. |
| Preparedness | The species-specific biological predisposition to learn some associations more quickly than other associations. |
| Operant conditioning | An active form of learning by which an association is made between a stimulus and a voluntary response. |
| Law of effect | The idea that behavior is a function of its past consequences—actions followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, while those followed by negative outcomes are weakened. |
| Shaping | The process by which random behaviors are gradually changed into a desired target behavior through reinforcement of successive approximations. |
| Reinforcement | A consequence that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. |
| Punishment | A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. |
| Primary reinforcers | Consequences that are innately pleasurable and/or satisfy some biological need. |
| Secondary reinforcers | Learned pleasures that acquire value through experience because of their association with primary reinforcers. |
| Example of primary reinforcers | Food, drink, warmth, positive social regard, and sex. |
| Example of secondary reinforcers | Money, which can be used to purchase food, drinks, etc. |
| Behavior modification | The use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior. |
| Edward Thorndike | A psychologist who placed cats in escape rooms to study how animals make associations through voluntary behavior. |
| Conditioned response in Little Albert study | Crying and trying to crawl away when seeing the rat. |
| Generalization in Little Albert study | Conditioning that generalized to other white furry objects. |
| Positive Reinforcement | Increasing behavior by adding something desirable. |
| Negative Reinforcement | Increasing behavior by subtracting something undesirable. |
| Positive Punishment | Decreasing behavior by adding something undesirable. |
| Negative Punishment | Decreasing behavior by subtracting something desirable. |
| Superstitious Conditioning | A form of noncontingent reinforcement where a behavior is learned that has no actual relationship with reinforcement. |
| Continuous Reinforcement Schedule | A reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is rewarded every time it is performed. |
| Partial Reinforcement Schedule | A reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is rewarded only some of the time. |
| Fixed-Ratio Schedule | A reinforcement schedule in which a specific number of behaviors are required before reward is given. |
| Variable-Ratio Schedule | A reinforcement schedule in which an average number of behaviors are required before a reward is given. |
| Fixed-Interval Schedule | A reinforcement schedule based on a fixed amount of time before an award is given. |
| Variable-Interval Schedule | A reinforcement schedule based on an amount of time between rewards that varies around a constant average. |
| Desired Behavior | The specific behavior that is aimed to be increased or decreased through conditioning. |
| Learning Schedules | The timing and frequency of reinforcement that affects how quickly a behavior is learned. |
| Scallop-Shaped Pattern | The distinct response rate pattern observed in fixed-interval schedules when graphed. |
| Addictive Behavior | Behavior that is reinforced in a way that leads to repetitive actions despite negative consequences. |
| Vending Machines Example | Illustrates continuous reinforcement where every time money is inserted, a product is received. |
| Salesperson Bonus Example | Illustrates fixed-ratio schedule where a bonus is given for every five items sold. |
| Casino Slot Machines Example | Illustrates variable-ratio schedule where players are encouraged to play despite unpredictable payoffs. |
| Studying Behavior Example | Illustrates fixed-interval schedule where studying intensifies as the exam date approaches. |
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