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psych exam 2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| behaviorism | psychology should concern itself only with what people and other animals do, and the circumstances in which they do it |
| classical conditioning | the process by which an organism learns a new association between two stimuli - a neutral stimulus and one that already evokes a reflexive response |
| operant conditioning | the process of changing behavior by providing a reinforcer or a punishment after a response |
| in operant conditioning, the subject’s behavior produces an outcome that affects future behavior. in classical conditioning the subject’s behavior has no effect on the outcome. | what is the difference between classical and operant conditioning? |
| extinction | the process that weakens a conditioned response by presenting the conditioned stimulus without the conditioned stimulus; the result that occurs if responses stop producing reinforcements |
| spontaneous recovery | a temporary return of an extinguished response after a delay |
| forgetting | the inability to retrieve information that was previously stored in memory |
| positive reinforcement | presenting something, such as food |
| negative reinforcement | avoiding something, such as pain |
| drug tolerance and conditioning | the weakened effects of a drug after being taken repeatedly; results in part from classical conditioning |
| schedules of reinforcement | rules for the delivery of reinforcement |
| B.F. Skinner | American psychologist and inventor who is considered a pioneer of behaviorism and the “father” of operant conditioning |
| shaping | rewarding behaviors as they get closer and closer to the desired goal through successive approximations |
| chaining | linking multiple complex behaviors together through shaping to achieve a final result |
| Albert Bandura | known for originating social learning theory and the concept of self-efficacy |
| Bobo Doll | a landmark study in psychology that demonstrated social learning theory, showing that children learn aggressive behavior through observation and imitation of adults |
| procedural memory | memory that enables you to perform specific learned skills or habitual responses |
| declarative memory | memories we can readily state in words; formed all at once; formed in different brain areas than procedural memories |
| ebbinghaus | one of the first to really study memory; developed nonsense syllables but had difficulty finding people who would be a part of his experiment, so he memorized the syllables and reported on his memory |
| implicit memory | indirect memory |
| short-term memory | temporary storage of recent events |
| free recall | to produce a response as you do on an essay or short-answer test |
| recognition | someone chooses the correct item from among several options |
| semantic memory | this portion of memory stores general knowledge, facts and language meaning |
| episodic memory | this is the portion of memory that stores personal events or “episodes” |
| executive functioning | the cognitive process that governs shifts of attention |
| repressive | moving an unacceptable memory or impulse from the conscious mind to the unconscious mind |
| dissociation | memory that one has started but cannot retrieve |
| confabulation | attempts by amnesic patients to fill in the gaps in their memory; questions about today are described using something from their past |
| cognitive psychologist | study how we think, reason, obtain knowledge and learn |
| bottom-up processing | begins with retrieving sensory information from our external environment to build perceptions based on the current input of sensory information |
| top-down processing | perceiving the world around us by drawing from what we already know to interpret new information |
| preattentive processing | how we identify an object that stands out immediately |
| attentive processing | strategy that requires searching through the items in a series |
| attentional bottleneck | a limitation in processing capacity that occurs when the brain is required to focus on multiple stimuli or tasks simultaneously (multitasking) |
| ADHD | characterized by easy distraction, impulsiveness, moodiness, and failure to follow through on plans; with the addition of excessive activity and “fidgetness” |
| heuristics | strategies for simplifying a problem and generating a satisfactory guess |
| type 1 processing | refers to the automatic. intuitive, and fast cognitive processes that form a part of the dual-process theory of human decision-making and problem-solving |
| type 2 processing | used for math calculations and anything requiring attention and effort |
| availability heuristics | assumes that if we easily think of examples of a category, then that category must be common |
| confirmation bias | seeking evidence to support a favored hypothesis instead of considering other possibilities |
| functional fixedness | the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem-solving |
| Broca's aphasia | caused by damage to the frontal cortex resulting in difficulties in language production |
| intelligence | the ability to learn from experience, solve problems and use knowledge to adapt to new situations |
| g factor | general intelligence; corresponds to an ability that underlies all kinds of intelligence, such as mental speed or working memory, according to some researchers |
| Howard Gardner | Howard Gardener’s theory of multiple intelligences posits that individuals possess various distinct types of intelligences, rather than a single general intelligence |
| Alfred Binet | a French psychologist who played an important role in the development of experimental psychology |
| aptitude | the ability to learn, or fluid intelligence |
| achievement | what someone has already learned, or crystallized intelligence |
| mental age | a psychological term that refers to a person’s cognitive abilities compared to others their age |
| Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) | a non-verbal intelligence test created to evaluate problem-solving abilities and abstract reasoning skills independent of language or cultural background |
| the environment | What greatly influences intelligence? |
| fluid intelligence | encompasses abstract thinking, quick reasoning, and independent problem-solving skills essential for adapting to new situations; like the flexible capacity of your brain, allowing you to easily tackle unfamiliar challenges |
| crystallized intelligence | your ability to use knowledge gained over time; it’s applying learned skills and experiences to solve problems, like using vocabulary and facts you’ve accumulated through education and life experiences |
| Flynn Effect | the finding that scores on IQ tests have increased in the past century |
| bias | the tendency for test scores to overstate or understate the true performance of one or more groups |
| behaviorist’s view of consciousness | believed it was an internal, private experience and it could not be observed or measured, and that consciousness was simply not important |
| brain fog | a colloquial term for a cluster of symptoms that affect cognitive function, including forgetfulness, difficulty concentrating, and mental slowness |
| fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) | identifies location of activity more precisely than EEG and MEG; less precise measurement of timing |
| unconscious processing | the vast sum of operations of the mind that take place below the level of conscious awareness |
| suppression | the conscious and deliberate process of actively blocking or inhibiting unwanted thoughts, emotions, or memories |
| vegetative state | limited responsiveness to stimuli, such as increased heart rate in response to pain |
| coma | the brain shows a steady but low level of activity and no response to any stimulus |
| voluntary decisions | gradual, not sudden; the brain starts processing your decision before you make it and it produces voluntary movement before you have made a “conscious” decision to move |
| epiphenomenon | an accidental by-product with no purpose caused by another one |
| circadian rhythm | he pattern your body follows based on a 24-hour day - it's the name given to your body’s internal clock |
| morning person | people that arouse quickly and reach their peak alertness early |
| jet lag | a period of discomfort and inefficiency while your internal clock is out of phase with your new surrounding |
| suprachiasmatic nucleus | generates an approximately 24-hour rhythm; sunlight does not generate this rhythm, but it does reset it |
| The suprachiasmatic nucleus exerts its control partly by regulating the pineal gland’s secretions of the hormone melatonin, which is important for circadian rhythms. | What is the pineal gland’s function in the circadian rhythm? |
| sleep spindles | bursts of brain activity that occur during stage 2 of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep |
| sleep walking | a sleep disorder characterized by engaging in complex behaviors while partially or fully asleep |
| psychoactive drugs | mind-altering drugs, or consciousness-altering drugs with a chemical substance that changes brain function and results in alterations in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior |
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