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PSY 100 - EXAM 2
Chapters 4, 6, and 7
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Learning | Relatively permanent change in knowledge and behavior that is based upon experience |
| What factors can influence and interfere learning | Internal and external factors |
| Behaviorism | focus on observable, measurable behaviors NOT measurable |
| Determinism | Behaviors that have a "knowable cause" |
| Mental explanations are ineffecting | Leads to circular reasoning |
| Environment molds behavior | The strongest influence on behavior is the outcome |
| Classical conditioning | observation: dogs salivated when saw researchers who brought food Conclusion: Physiological reflex (based on prior experience) |
| Learning | Relatively permanent change in knowledge and behavior that is based upon experience |
| What factors can influence and interfere learning | Internal and external factors |
| Behaviorism | focus on observable, measurable behaviors NOT measurable |
| Determinism | Behaviors that have a "knowable cause" |
| Mental explanations are ineffecting | Leads to circular reasoning |
| Environment molds behavior | The strongest influence on behavior is the outcome |
| Classical conditioning | observation: dogs salivated when saw researchers who brought food Conclusion: Physiological reflex (based on prior experience) |
| Unconditioned stimulus (US) | Something that triggers a naturally occurring involuntray response (food) |
| Unconditioned response (UR) | Naturally occurring involuntary response (salvation) |
| Conditioned stimulus (CS) | Natural stimulus that, after being repeatedly presented to the unconditioned stimulus, evokes a similar involuntary response as the unconditioned stimulus (Sound of bell) |
| Conditioned response (CR) | The aquired involuntary response to the formerly neutral stimulus (dogs learning to salvatate at the sound of bells) |
| Generalization | The tendency to respond to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus (the sound of a xylophone) |
| Discrimination | the learned ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and other similar stimuli, leading to a specific response only to the true CS |
| Second-order Conditioning | begin to salivate to a new stimulus, like a light, because the light was paired with the bell |
| Operant conditioning | learning the occurs based on the consequences of a voluntary behavior |
| Thorndike's law of effect | the principle that behaviors followed by satisfying, or "good," consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unsatisfying, or "bad," |
| Reinforcement | Event that strengthens or increases a behavior |
| Punishment | Event that weakens or decreases a behavior |
| Positive reinforcement | adding a reward after a behavior to increase the likelihood that the behavior will occur again (a teacher praising a student for good work) |
| Negative Reinforcement | taking something away to increase tendency safe behavior will occur again (turning off an annoying car alarm by fastening a seatbelt) |
| Positive punishment | Behavior results in the addition of something undesirable (A parent assigns extra chores to a child) |
| Negative punishment | Behavior that results in the subtraction of something desirable (A parent takes away a child's video game) |
| Continious reinforcement | A response is reinforced each time it occurs (dog gets treat every time it rolls over) |
| Partial reinforcement | A response is sometimes reinforced and sometimes not (When you hold a door for someone, sometimes you are reinforced with a smile or a “thank you,” but sometimes you aren’t) |
| Ratio | Reinforcement based on number of responses |
| Interval | Reinforcement based on time since last reinforcement |
| FIxed ratio | Behavior is reinforced after a specific number of responses. (Membership cards) |
| Variable ratio | Behavior reinforced after an average but unpredictable number of responses (Slot machines) |
| FIxed interval | Behavior is reinforced for the first response after a specific amount of time has passed. (Bi-weekly checks) |
| Variable interval | Behavior is reinforced for the first response after an average, but unpredictable, amount of time has passed (checking email) |
| insight | the sudden understanding of a problem's solution |
| Latent learning | Learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement (Rats that explored a maze without food rewards) |
| Observational learning | Learning that occurs by watching others behavior |
| Developmental psychology | Seeks to understand how nature and nurture combine to produce human behavior |
| Sensoriomotor | 0-2 years, child experiences world through sight, hearing, touching, and tasting, object permanence |
| Preoperational | 2-7 years, ability to speak and mental images, language ability |
| Concrete operational | 5-7, can now think logically, conversation |
| Formal operational | Onset of puberty to adulthood, can reason about abstract concepts and can understand ethics |
| Piaget's sensorimotor | motor responses, lack of object permanence, lack of sense of self |
| Piaget's preoperational | lacks reversible thoughts, can't think logically, cant take other perspectives, lack of conversation |
| Piaget's concrete operations | can perform mental operations and logical operations, understand conversations |
| Piaget's formal operations | development of formal operations, logical reasoning, systematic planning |
| Erickson's theory | 8 stages of socio-emotional development |
| Infant | is my social world predictable and supportive? |
| Toddler 1-3 | can i do things myself or will i rely on others? |
| Preschool child 3-6 | am i good or bad? |
| Preadolescent 6-12 | am i successfull or worthless? |
| Adolescent early teens | who am i? |
| Young adult late teens early 20 | will i share my life with someone or live alone? |
| Middle adult late 20 to retirement | will i succeed in my life? |
| Older adult after retirement | have i lived a full life? |
| attachment | the strong need to be close to the primary caregiver |
| harry and margaret harlow | Monkey prefered mother who provided comfort vs food |
| Margaret Ainsworth | infants response in strange situation to see the attachment style |
| Identity achievement | A person who explores many career paths and then definitively commits to becoming a chef because it is the best fit for them |
| Identity foreclosure | when a young adult decides to become a doctor because their parents, both doctors, have always expected it, rather than exploring other career paths or considering personal interests |
| Identity moratorium | a college student who explores different majors and careers but hasn't committed to a single path because they are still figuring out what truly interests them and fits their values |
| Identity diffusion | a 30-year-old who still lives with their parents, has not committed to a career path, and lacks future goals or a clear sense of purpose |
| Authoritative parenting | the idea of having rules and disciplines, but listening to the child and having conversation with them |
| Authoritarian parenting | parents set strict, unexplained rules and enforce them with punishment, offering little warmth or room for negotiation |
| Permissive Parenting | high responsiveness and warmth but low demands for behavior, rules, and maturity |
| Indifferent/uninvolved parenting | a lack of emotional connection, responsiveness, and guidance |
| Sensation | Stimulation of sense organs |
| Transduction | Conversation of stimuli detected by receptor cells to electrical impulses transported to the brain |
| Perception | Interpretation of sensations by the brain |
| Stimuli | Information from world around us |
| Receptors | Convert physical stimuli into signals for central nervous system |
| light | Stimulus detected by visual system |
| Pupil | Adjustable opening through which light enters the eye |
| Iris | Structured surrounding the pupil: dilates and constricts the pupil |
| Cornea | Rigid, transparent outer surface of the eye: directs light through the pupil |
| Lens | Flexible structure that varies in thickness enabling the eye to accommodate for multiple distances |
| Vitreous humor | Clear, jelly like substance at the back of the eye: light is directed through this part of the eye to the retina |
| retina | location of visual receptors |
| Cones | color vision, daytime vision, dilated vision |
| rods | adapted for vision in dim light |
| Fovea | area of great visual acuity in human eye |
| Step 1 | visual receptors send signals to the cent of they eye, bipolar cells gather impulses from rods and cones, send signals to ganglion cells |
| bipolar cells | Gather impulses from rods and cones |
| Step 2 | Signal goes to optic chiasm, half of axons of each optic nerve sent to the opposite side of optic tracts, signal goes to visual cortex |
| Trichromatic theory | process of vision depends on relative rate of response of 3 types of cones |
| red | long waves |
| green | medium waves |
| blue | short waves |
| opponent-process theory | we see color is terms of paired opposites, black and white, blue and yellow, and red and green |
| Presbyopia | difficulty focusing on near objects (Decreased lens flexibility) |
| Mytopia | difficulty focusing on distant objects (elongation of eye) |
| Hyperopia | DIfficulty focusing on near objects (flattening of the eye) |
| Glaucoma | Increased pressure in the eye |
| Cataract | Clouding of the lens |
| Frequency | wavelength of sound wave |
| Pitch | perceived frequency of a sound |
| amplitude | height of the sound wave |
| loudness | degree of sound volume |
| sound waves | enter the outer ear and are transmitted through the auditory canal to the eardrum |
| vibrations | moved to the ossicles into the cochlea, where they are detected by hair cells and sent to the auditory nerve |
| Steps for sound transduction | draws in sound waves - sound waves strike tympanic membrane - vibrations relayed through ossicles - oval window vibrates - fluid in cochlea moves - hair cells bend |
| Conductive hearing loss | physical damage of ear |
| Sensorineural hearing loss | Damage to cilia, exposure to lound sounds |
| why is it hard to tell whether a sound originates in front or behind you | sound waves hit your ears at the same time |
| absolute threshold | intensity at which a person detects stimulus 50% of the time (The minimum amount of light needed to detect a candle flame on a dark, clear night) |
| signal detection analysis | sensitivity and response bias |
| Pattern theory: Gestalt theory | humans group similar elements, recognize patterns and simplify complex images |
| depth cues | messages from our bodies and the enviroment that supply us with info about space and distance |
| cue | description |
| relative height | objects closer to the horizon line seem further away |
| relative size | smaller objects seem more far away |
| linear perspective | parallel lines appear to mix together in the distance |
| light and shadow | closer objects reflect more light |
| interposition | one object overlaps another object, we see the first object as closer |
| aerial perspective | objects that are hazy look far away |
| illusions | occur when the perceptual processes that normal help us perceive the world are fooled by a situation |
| What is the clear, jellylike substance at the back of the eye; light is directed through this part of the eye to the retina? | vitreous humor |
| Which visual receptor is responsible for color? | cones |
| What type of cells do the receptors send signals to? | ganglion |
| What’s another name for the crossover point? | Optic chiasm |
| Where are signals from the visual receptors sent? | Visual cortex |
| What are the two color vision theories? | trichromatic theory and opponent-process theory |
| What is conductive hearing loss? | the sound waves can’t get all the way to the cochlea so hearing loss happens |
| What are the stages of Piaget’s theory (cognitive development)? | Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years), Preoperational (2-7 years), Concrete Operational (7-11 years), and Formal Operational (12 years and up) |
| hat is the visible light spectrum for humans? | 400-700 (nanometers) |
| What does it mean to be egocentric? | The ability to not take in others perspectives |
| Which cell in the eyes is responsible for scotopic (night) vision? | RODS |
| What are the 4 types of touch sensation? | Pressure, temperature, pain, vibration. |
| What is the visual pathway from the eye to the brain? | Retina -> optic nerve -> optic chiasm ->thalamus -> visual cortex |
| What is the difference between frequency and amplitude | frequency determines the pitch. Amplitude is the loudness. |
| What stage is a child in when they find peek-a-boo really enjoyable and funny? | Senorimotor Stage |
| What are some criticisms of Piaget’s theory? | There is no clear way to move from stage to stage in his theory He underestimated infants abilities and overestimated adolescents capabilities His study was only done on his friends children, so it was an isolated sample |
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