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PerspectivesResearch
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| nature | refers to the influence of inherited biological factors (genes) and innate characteristics passed down from parents |
| nurture | all environmental factors like upbringing, schooling, socioeconomic status, relationships, people, and surrounding culture that influence an individual |
| psychodynamic/psychoanalytic perspective | created by Sigmund Freud, our behaviors/thoughts/fears/etc. come from unconscious drives that stem from childhood |
| unconscious | unaware, done without thinking |
| behaviorism | focuses only on our observable behaviors, cares about behaviors that impair our daily life and attempts to change them (doesn't care about why they happen, just want to replace the bad with the good), rewards/punishments help people learn |
| humanism | focuses on positive growth, attempts to achieve self-actualization, unconditional positive affirmations, think about only your actions (don't blame others), promotes health and self-growth |
| self-actualization | achieving your goals and becoming the best version of yourself |
| positive psychology | falls under humanism, promotes positive thinking/emotions/well-being |
| cognitive perspective | focuses on how we encode/take in info (how we think), how do we see the world?, how did we learn to act happy/sad at certain events?, fixed mindset to growth mindset, improves self-esteem, if thoughts change then behavior will too |
| neurobiological perspective | focuses on how the physical body and brain creates emotions, memories, and sensory experiences, something is physically happening in the body, diseases/brain damage |
| evolutionary perspective | focuses on Darwinism, we behave the way we do because we inherited these behaviors from our ancestors (sleeping at night since it was dark and ancestors couldn't see/hunt; scared of the dark since ancestors couldn't see predators) |
| Darwinism | only the organisms with the best traits will survive and these traits will get passed down to offspring |
| social-cultural perspective | focuses on how your environment affects your behavior, we are the people we are today because of the people /culture we surround ourselves with, nurture, setting standards, learning a routine |
| health psychology | not part of the big 7, how the unique psychological, behavioral, cultural factors all impact physical health and wellness (ex. how does mental health impact physical health?), uses a combination of all big 7 perspectives |
| scientific thinking | uses observations and testing to draw conclusions, focuses on the use of empirical evidence, controlled experiments, statistical analysis to validate hypotheses/theories, uses systematic research methods, objective (no personal opinion) |
| critical thinking | doesn't automatically accept an argument; involves analyzing, evaluating, and questioning the validity & reliability of info and the applicability of research; examines assumptions and sources of info, looks for biases, accesses conclusions |
| Barnum effect | when a person accepts vague and general personality descriptions as accurate and specific to them, when told they are unique to their personality, despite the statements applying to almost everyone |
| operational definition | done before starting research, describes what is being studied, identifies research variables, is a step-by-step detailed procedure that is followed while conducting research (recipe) |
| validity | is the data correct? --> inaccurate results can lead to solutions that don't work/will harm the people that use it |
| reliability | will you consistently get the same results? --> the results should always be the same no matter how often the test is conducted |
| falsifiability | can results be proved wrong or tested? --> evidence can prove a hypothesis/data incorrect though testing & retesting |
| population | the entire group of people you are studying, can be broken into smaller samples to easily conduct research |
| random sampling | a way to avoid bias, when you randomly select the individuals from a population that will be included in the experiment using a random number generator, every group of individuals has an equal chance of being selected |
| sample | the small group of people in a research study that represent the whole population |
| a large representative sample group | makes the research results/data more applicable/generalizable to the whole population, purposely choosing individuals that represent the various subgroups needed, avoids bias |
| Big Five traits | openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism |
| openness to experience | when someone wants to try new things and learn new ideas/opinions; clear decision making but incredibly gullible, not grounded to reality (ex. trying new foods or having a limited perspective) |
| conscientiousness | a person’s tendency to be organized, responsible, hard working, and goal directed; doing good in school or good time management, high stress, perfectionism (ex. very organized/detail-oriented or easygoing/careless) |
| extraversion | sociability, high energy, and tendency to be outgoing and enthusiastic; can sometimes be overbearing or impulsive or make others uncomfortable (ex. being a good public speaker or reserved in social situations) |
| agreeableness | reflects a person's tendency to be cooperative, compassionate, and considerate towards others; cooperative but competitive or blunt at times, can form strong connections with people easily but easily is taken advantage of |
| neuroticism | a person’s tendency to experience negative emotions more intensely or more frequently; emotional instability/can't handle stress or emotions (more cautious) or has composure in stressful situations and accepts criticism/setbacks (might lack urgency) |
| interfering experiments | a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process, uses random assignment/sample and shows cause and effect, starts with a hypothesis, control/experimental groups |
| variable | conditions or behaviors that are changing in an experiment |
| independent variable | condition that is changed by the experimenter, placed on the x-axis, the "cause", applied to experimental group |
| dependent variable | condition that researchers think will be affected by the independent variable, placed on the y-axis, the "effect", monitored through control group |
| random assignment | treatments are randomly assigned to the experimental units, controls for confounding variables and ensures cause and effect |
| naturalistic observation | watching and recording the behavior of many individuals in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate/ control the situation, researcher should be concealed. good for forming a hypothesis, no single conclusion |
| case study | scientific study or biography of an individual or group, focuses on a particular disorder or experience, uses long term observation, self reports, diaries, or therapy session tapes, can't be used to generalize but can be used to form a research hypothesis |
| longitudinal study | studies and re-studies of the same group of people at regular intervals over a period of time, shows consistencies/ inconsistencies of behavior, can use a survey to measure, correlational study |
| cross-sectional study | organized group of individuals based on age that are randomly sampled, members of each group are surveyed, tested, or observed, correlational study |
| experimental group | receives the treatment/independent variable |
| control group | will be treated the same as the experimental group but aren't given the treatment or are given a placebo |
| meta analysis | technique that combines the results of multiple previous research studies into a single correlation or estimate |
| meta analysis pros | using verified research, access to a wide range of perspectives, helps identify trends or inconsistencies |
| meta analysis cons | no minimum number of studies/participants (don't know how generalizable their sample group is), information of interest may be missing from the original research being referenced |
| correlation is not | causation |
| correlation | relationship between variables, doesn't show cause and effect (can have confounding variables), can be positive or negative |
| positive correlation | both variables react in the same way (both variables increase or both variables decrease) |
| negative correlation | each variable reacts in a different way (one variable increases while the other decreases) |
| inferential/qualitative statistics | numerical data that allows one to generalize/infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population |
| descriptive/quantitative statistics | numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups, includes measures of central tendency and measure of variation |
| correlation coefficients | the closer it is to 1 the stronger the correlation is, shows the degree of relationship between the variables, 0 = no relationship, -0.9 or 0.9 = strong correlation, -0.1 or 0.1 = weak correlation |
| scatterplot | graph that shows correlation between 2 variables |
| confounding variable | variable besides the independent variable that could influence the dependent variable |
| control variable | things that an experimenter can control or keep the same in an experiment |
| mean | average, measure of central tendency, top of a bell curve |
| median | middle (50% data on one side, 50% on the other), measure of central tendency |
| mode | most common answer, measure of central tendency |
| range | max data value - min data value, measure of variance |
| standard deviation | describes the average distance of every data point from the mean, 68% of data will fall within 1 SD, 95% within 2 SD, and 99% within 3 SD, measure of variance |
| statistical significance | the larger the sample size, the more statistically significant results will be (less likely something is caused by chance) |
| p-value | if the probability or likelihood that the results are due to chance, is less than 5% (p-value of 0.05) then the results are statistically significant, makes sure that results aren't due to chance/confounding variables |
| self-fulfilling prophecy | type of bias, when the experimenter brings about the results they need to prove their hypothesis correct (influence the experiment to prove themselves right), double/single blind experiments prevent this |
| single blind experiment | participants are unaware of hypothesis/what is going on |
| double blind experiment | neither the experimenter nor the participants know the hypothesis/what is going on |
| hindsight bias | people overestimate their ability to predict an outcome, they convince themselves after an event happens that they accurately predicted what would happen before it actually did (must conduct research even if you aren't surprised with outcome) |
| Hawthorne effect | subjects act differently when they know they're being observed, they behave better when they know they are being watched so that they don't get in trouble |
| generalization | happens when random sampling/assignment is used, results from a sample can be applied to the rest of the population |
| quantitative research | numeric, objective, analysis of statistical data, answers "when" and "where" when evaluating descriptive statistics |
| qualitative research | subjective, answers "why" and "how" when evaluating inferential statistics/conclusions |
| null hyopthesis | occurs when the p-value is greater than 0.05, shows that there is no relationship |
| bias | favoring one thing more than another, causes a skewed graph (positive - right skew, negative - left skew) |
| ethical research | obtain informed consent from participants, protect them from potential physical/emotional harm or discomfort , keep information about individuals confidential, fully debrief/explain the research to the participants after the experiment |
| z-score | x (data value) - mean / standard deviation |
| self report bias | includes any errors that can happen when participants have to report on/answer questions in research (due to social desirability, misunderstanding a question, answering randomly) |
| cultural bias | assuming that a behavior is considered "normal" in your culture is considered "normal" everywhere, judging someone's behavior through the lens of your own culture than considering their own |
| confirmation bias | when doing research the experimenter only focuses on evidence that supports their pre-existing opinions |
| social desirablility | subjects believe they are being judged and answer based on their perception of what the researcher is asking (want acceptance/approval) |
| overconfidence | most people are overconfident when it comes to predicting events they believe themselves to be experts in, closed-minded in research, may not want to re-test |
| how to find how many standard deviations a value is above the mean | mean + 2 or whatever # of standard deviations(standard deviation) = value that is 2, 3, 4, etc. standard deviations above the mean |
Created by:
ts2819
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