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Research Methods mid
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Identify the four cycles present in the research process and give a short description of each cycle in your own words, what is the purpose of each of these cycles in the process of creating and sharing new knowledge. | Theory (leads researchers to pose particular -> research questions (which lead to an approach) -> research design (to test a specific hypothesis )-> hypothesis is ideally preregistered before they collect and analysis -> data (will feed back into cycle) |
| Theory: | statement that describes how two variables relate to each other |
| Hypothesis: | statement of the specific result the researcher expects to observe from a particular study |
| Supported by data: 1/3 characteristics of a good theory | should be backed up by research and evidence not ideas/speculation |
| Falsifiable: 2/3 characteristics of a good theory | must be testable to be proven wrong w/ evidence |
| Parsimmonious: 3/3 characteristics of a good theory | explains theory in the simplest way |
| Applied research: | find a solution to a particular real life problem |
| Basic research: | goal to enhance general body of knowledge w/o appling it to practical problems |
| Being sways by a good story: 1/five ways that our intuition can be biased. | empirical evidence contraadics what your common sense tells you, be ready to adjust your beliefs on the basis of research |
| Intuition can be biased: 2/five ways that our intuition can be biased. | humans are not scientifically thinkinkers, might not be aware we are biased |
| Being persuaded by what comes easily to mind 3/ five ways that our intuition can be biased. | Availability nuristic: ppl incorrectly estimate the frequency of something, relying on instances that come to mind of not using evidence |
| Focusing on evidence we expect 4/five ways that our intuition can be biased | confirmation bias only looking at information that agrees with what you want to believe |
| .Biased about being biased 5/5 five ways that our intuition can be biased | tendency for people to think that compared to others, they themselves are less likely to engage in biased reasoning |
| What is wrong with using personal experiences rather than the scientific method to answer questions? | Experience has no comparison group, change can happen but we might not be sure what made it change |
| Why is it important for EVERYONE to be a good consumer of research? | Crucial to your professional career. You need to be able to evaluate studies and know how to ask the right questions |
| Variable | something that varies, at least two values, |
| Constant variable | potentially varies & only has one value |
| What might the purpose be of holding one thing that could be a variable constant within a research study? | to always have a variable to rely on in case of the emergene of confounding variables which may lead to inadequate data |
| What does it mean when a researcher manipulates a variable? | Researcher controls one of the levels, by assigning study participants to different levels of variables |
| How is this different than measuring a variable? You have been introduced to the terms independent variable and dependent variable in this reading. | What we observe and record (dependent variable) |
| Which of these would be a manipulated variable? | Independent variable |
| Explain the distinction between a conceptual definition of a variable and an operational definition of a variable. Conceptual variables | Conceptual variables are used as an overview of theories or research which can be used to explain the topic in question to possible participants of the study |
| Explain the distinction between a conceptual definition of a variable and an operational definition of a variable.Operational variables | Operational variables are more used to give fellow researchers an over sight on how the experiment or hypothesis is set up & performed |
| List and describe the three types of claims.Frequency claims: | describes a particular rate or degree of a single variable |
| List and describe the three types of claims. Association claim: | about two variables, in which the value of one variable is set to vary systematically w/ the value of another variable , |
| List and describe the three types of claims. Causal claim: | argues specific change in one variable is responsible for influencing the value of another variable |
| What are the four different types of associations that might be found between variables? | Positive association ↗ Negative association ↘ Zero association |
| What is validity as it refers to psychological research design? | Validity: refers to the appropriateness of a conclusion or decision |
| What are the four major validities described in this chapter (describe each)? Construct validity: | how well the a variable was measured or manipulated in a study |
| What are the four major validities described in this chapter (describe each)? Statistical validity: | extent to which statistical conclusions delivered from a study are accurate two variables |
| What are the four major validities described in this chapter (describe each)? External validity | how well the results of a study generalize to or, represent individuals or contents besides those in the study itself |
| What are the four major validities described in this chapter (describe each)? Internal validity: | study ability to rule out alternative explanations for casual relationships between two variables |
| What is the purpose of random assignment in creating high internal validity and for producing temporal precedence? | It ensures that all groups in an experiment are equivalent at the start of the study, and it does not produce temporal precedence. |
| What are the three ethical principles of the Belmont Report and describe how each is applied in research. Respect for a person : | research participants should be treated as autonomous agents, and certain groups deserve special protection |
| What are the three ethical principles of the Belmont Report and describe how each is applied in research. Benefince: | researchers must take precautions to protect participants from harm and to promote their well-being. |
| What are the three ethical principles of the Belmont Report and describe how each is applied in research. Justice: | calls for fair balance between the kinds of people who participate in research and the kinds of people who benefit from it |
| How did the Tuskegee study violate beneficence ethical violation | harmed participants through risky and invasive medical tests, and they harmed the participants’ families by exposing them to untreated syphilis. |
| How did the Tuskegee study violate Justice ethical violation | regardless of race or income, anyone can contract syphilis, but the participants in the study—who bore the burden of untreated syphilis—were all Black men from the lowest income levels. |
| How did the Tuskegee study violate Respect of persons ethical violation | researcher lied to them about the nature of their participation and withheld information, they didnt give the men much choice to make an informed decision |
| How did the Milgrim study violate Respect of persons ethical violation | researcher lied to them about the nature of their participation and withheld information. they were not allowed to stop |
| How did the Milgrim study violate benefince ethical violation | research didn't estimate how stressful the situation would be, they didn't predict the risk and benefit for the community. caused psychological harm |
| How did the Milgrim study violate Justice ethical violation | did not apply |
| The American Psychological Association (APA) also has a set of ethical guidelines. List and describe the 5 major APA ethical principles. | a)beneficence and nonmaleficence, fidelity and responsibility, integrity, justice, respect for people’s rights and dignity |
| What is an IRB? What do these letters stand for? What is the purpose of an IRB? | Stands for Institutional Review Board, responsible for interpreting ethical principles and ensuring that research using human participants is conducted ethically. |
| Informed consent: | Researchers obligation to explain the study to potential participants in everyday language and give them a chance to decide whether to participate. |
| Are there any instances when a researcher does not need to obtain informed consent? | when the study is not likely to cause harm, involves a completely anonymous questionnaire or takes place in an educational setting |
| Is deception allowable in psychological research? | Yes in deception through omission, withholding information necessary in cases in order to obtain results |
| what are the procedures for ethically using deception? | Must uphold the principle of respect for persons by informing participants of the study’s activities,risks,and benefince, and a comprehensive debriefing process where participants are informed of the deception and given the option to withdraw their data |
| What are some types of research misconduct?three types : | data fabrication and Data falsification, and plagiarism |
| data fabrication: | instead of recoding what really happened in a study researchers invent data that fit their hypothesis |
| Data falsification: | researchers influence a study’s results perhaps by selectively deleting observations from a data set or by influencing their research subjects to act in the hypothesized way |
| Plagiarism: | representing ideas or words of others as one’s own |
| what are the three major different types of measurement in research? | Self-report measure, Observational measure,Physiological measure |
| Self-report measure | measuring a variable in which people answer questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview. They are likely to be accurate but also can be biased |
| Observational measure: | method of measuring a variable by recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors. |
| Physiological measure: | measuring variable by recording biological data |
| Nominal: | uses labels, names, or categories to classify data without any inherent order or ranking |
| Ordinal: | A quantitative variable in which numerals represent a rank order. Distance between subsequent numerals may not be equal. |
| Interval | A quantitative variable in which subsequent numerals represent equal distances, but there is no true zero. |
| Ratio: | quantitative variable in which numerals represent equal distances and zero represents “none” of the variable being measured. |
| Why is it important to know what scale of measurement is used when we quantify and analyze behavior? | it dictates the types of statistical analyses that are appropriate, ensuring your conclusions are valid and meaningful |
| TEST-RETEST reliability: types of reliability that we might assess with psychological measurement. | needs to be present when researchers are measuring constructs (such as intelligence or personality traits) that are theoretically stable over time. can apply whether the operationalization is self-report, observational, or physiological. |
| Interrater reliability: types of reliability that we might assess with psychological measurement. | means that two or more independent raters have made very similar observations. important for observational mesures, |
| Internal reliability: types of reliability that we might assess with psychological measurement. | elevant for measures that use multiple items or observations to get at the same construct. It applies when researchers combine multiple items or observations into one score. |
| How are correlations used in the determination and evaluation of each of these different forms of measurement reliability? | Correlations are used in reliability by showing how strongly scores agree—over time (test–retest), between raters (inter-rater), across test versions (parallel-forms), or among items on the same test (internal consistency). |
| Face validity: Five different forms of measurement validity | it looks like what you want to mesure |
| Content validity: Five different forms of measurement validity | the mesure contains all the parts that your theory says it should contain |
| Criterion validity: Five different forms of measurement validity | \ your measure is correlated with a relevant behavioral outcome |
| convergent validity: Five different forms of measurement validity | your self-report measure is more strongly associated with self report measure or similar constructs |
| Discriminan validity: Five different forms of measurement validity | your self report measure is less strongly associated with self report measure of disimilar constructs |
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