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Psychology
unit 1 glossary
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| merit | justification of the study, ensuring it's contributions are meaningful and that the experiment is performed responsibly |
| integrity | honesty and moral consistency of researchers and their work |
| justice | the study recruits participants fairly, and does not exploit them. experiment must also be reported clearly and fairly. |
| benefience | minimalize any harm that can come to participants and ensure their welfare. any harm (no more than mild embarrassment) must be justified for the benefits of research. |
| respect | of privacy, confidentiality and cultural sensitivity. participants must always have agency in what they are doing. |
| confidentiality | the non-disclosure of a participants personal information, and the accurate storage of data, access to which is limited to the researchers. involves identifying information not linked to purpose of the experiment and ensuring this info is not published. |
| privacy | the protection of personal information and unnecessary collection of personal information. all participants have the right to refuse the provision of personal information. |
| voluntary participation | subjects must be under no pressure or compulsion to participate at any level. participants cannot be bribed or rewarded. subjects need full information to volunteer, the only exception being ethical deception. |
| informed consent | must obtain written consent from participants using a consent form. under 18s must have a guardian sign. Includes the study's purpose, participant requirements, potential risks, length of study, and explain right to withdraw |
| withdrawal rights | participants can leave the study and have their results removed at any point without pressure or penalty. |
| deception | used when participants knowing the true purpose of the experiment would impact results. if deception could cause risk, it should not be used. |
| debriefing | an explanation given to participants at the conclusion of a study. vital if deception is used. counselling should be offered. |
| replacement | alternative methods that eliminate need for animals in research |
| reduction | alternative methods to obtain the same/similar results from fewer animals |
| refinement | methods that minimize potential distress or pain for animals in research |
| extraneous variable | a variable other than the IV that may cause unwanted change to the DV |
| confounding variable | a variable that causes changes to the DV that may be mistaken for change cause by the IV. |
| demand characteristics | when the participant's knowledge of a study's aims causes them to behave in a way that is not normal to them, effecting results. |
| experimenter effect | changes in a participants' behaviour caused by unintended influence of the experimenter rather than the IV |
| reliability | the repeatability of results under similar circumstances |
| test-retest reliability | participants given a test or questionnaire at two different times. positive correlation between the scores means the test is reliable. |
| parallel forms | the results of 2 different experiments are comparable to each other |
| internal consistency | if a test measures the same variable to the same extent every time. |
| validity | whether an assessment measure what it intends to measure. atest is valid for it's purpose. |
| content validity | the questions being asked are in line with what the experiment is trying to measure |
| construct validity | whether scores on a questionnaire are consistent with the trait being measured |
| Atkinson and Shiffrin's model | assumes there are three separate memory stores, and that information is transferred in a linear sequence. |
| maintenance rehearsal | process of mentally or verbally repeating information, extending its STM duration |
| elaborative rehearsal | the process of linking new information in a meaningful way with information already stored in the LTM. |
| memory | the process/ability/faculty of encoding, storing and retrieving information in the brain. |
| encoding | conversion of sensory information into a form that can be processed by the brain. can be done visually, acoustically, or semantically. |
| storage | retention of information for various lengths of time. in humans, this is through networks of neurons. information must be stored in a way that it is accessible later. |
| retrieval | recovery of information stored in the brain. relies on the right cues so that we can get to the correct semantic location. |
| iconic memory | visual information. more vivid image = remembered for longer. moves quickly to see the world in clarity (<1 second) |
| echoic memory | auditory information. sound held for 3-4 seconds, which is important for understanding language. |
| recall | retrieval of information from memory without cues/minimal cues |
| recognition | retrieval of correct information from a list of alternatives. |
| relearning | learning information again that was previously learnt - occurs quicker. |
| retrieval failure | inability to retrieve information when cues don't exist. |
| interference | retrieval difficulties due to competing/similar information being stored. |
| motivated forgetting | where there are advantages to not being able to retrieve information, due to it being anxiety provoking or unpleasant. |
| decay theory | fading of memory over time - memory traces fade through lack of use, and eventually become unavailable. |
| visio-spatial sketchpad | visual short term memory. storage of what we see. |
| phonological loop | auditory short term memory storage of what we hear, played on a loop. helps understand a sentence. |
| central executive | puts together visual and auditory information, controlling our attention and allowing for mental manipulation of incoming data. coordinates the slave systems and organizes information between them. |
| inhibition | act of the central executive - screening out irrelevant information |
| switching | act of the central executive - changing attention from one item to another |
| updating | act of central executive - modifying items brought from the long term memory before re-committing them to memory through the episodic buffer |
| episodic buffer | a temporary storage system that is capable of holding and integrating information from other slave systems into a single structure or episode |
| implicit LTM | unconscious recall of memories of how to do something |
| procedural memory | memory of learnt skills and actions |
| explicit LTM | consciously recalled memories of facts or personally significant events |
| semantic memory | impersonal, general, factual knowledge |
| episodic memory | memories of personally significant events and their context |
| forgetting curve | forgetting occurs most rapidly in the first 20 minutes, at a moderate rate for the first hour, and gradually for the next 31 days. |
| chronic-traumatic encephalopathy | trauma-based memory loss, due to repeated knocks to the head. causes cell death and loss of neurons: amnesia, violence, impulsivity, diminished concentration |
| alzheimers | degenerations based memory loss caused by build up of certain proteins, or neurofibrillary tangles. Causes cell death and damage to hippocampus and temporal lobes, leading to depression, anger, and distrust in others/social withdrawal |
| Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome | drug-induced memory loss due to excessive alcohol consumption and malnutrition. causes frontal lobe loss and damage to hippocampus, leading to confusion, ataxia, inability to form new memories, and apathy. |
| sensation | initial detection and processing of environmental stimuli through sensory organs. |
| reception | first step of sensation. presence of physical stimuli is detected by sensory neurons in sense organs. |
| transduction | second step of sensation. these different forms of stimuli are converted into electrochemical energy, the form of energy that the human nervous system and brain can process. |
| transmission | third step of sensation. this energy is transferred to the brain for processing |
| perception | information the brain receives is organized sand given meaning by the brain |
| selection | first step of perception. the brain filters stimuli, selecting important features for further processing whilst ignoring unimportant features that receive no further processing. Involves neurons called feature detectors. |
| organization | second step of perception. grouping the selected features of stimuli to form a whole, sometimes referred to as the gestalt. |
| interpretation | third step of perception. the brain interprets these wholes and gives them meaning. |
| cocktail party problem | found that we use physical differences between various auditory messages to select one of interest. differences include gender, intensity, and location of speaker. Cherry, 1953 |
| learning | the relatively permanent change, often of behaviour, that occurs as a result of experience |
| reinforcement | any event that increases the likelihood that a response will occur again |
| response | any identifiable behaviour that is elicited by a stimulus. may be observable action or internal behaviour. |
| stimulus | any object/event that elicits a response |
| classical conditioning | associating stimulus with response. a form of learning based on the repeated association of 2 normally unrelated stimuli. depends on reflex responses. |
| reflex | involuntary stimulus and response connection that is innate |
| stimulus generalisation | when stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus trigger the conditioned response. why shops carry imitations of nationally known brands. |
| stimulus discrimination | when an organism will only elicit the conditioned response when exposed to the conditioned stimulus - they will not respond to other similar stimuli. |
| extinction | the gradual decrease in strength or frequency of a response, to the point of no response, that has been conditioned when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer present. |
| spontaneous recovery | the reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of apparent extinction. usually weaker and more short-lived. |
| operant conditioning | the learning process in which the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated is determined by the consequences of that behaviour. |
| antecedent | the stimulus that comes before the response. the precursor. |
| behaviour | the response to the stimulus made due to the antecedent. most responses are voluntary, as the learner decides their response, playing an active role in the process. |
| consequence | follows the behaviour, and may result in either pleasant or unpleasant circumstances. this influences the likelihood the behaviour will be repeated in the future. can be reinforcement or punishment. |
| positive reinforcement | a pleasant or desirable event that follows a response, increasing likelihood of the behaviour occurring again. |
| negative reinforcement | an unpleasant stimulus is removed, creating positive consequence, increasing likelihood of repeated response |
| partial reinforcement schedule | a rule stating which instances of behaviour will be reinforced. |
| fixed-interval | an exact amount of time passes between reinforcement. e.g. a paycheck. |
| variable-interval | varying amount of time passes between reinforcement. e.g. checking your phone for a text |
| fixed-ratio | reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses. e.g. losing your license after 5 violations |
| variable-ratio | reinforcement occurs after varying number of responses. e.g. playing the lottery |
| punishment | the introduction of an unpleasant stimulus, decreasing likelihood of repeated response |
| observational learning | occurs when we watch, observe, the actions of another person, a model, and note the consequences of their actions, then decide whether to imitate or not. |
| modelling | any process where information is imparted by example |
| attention | learner must pay attention to the model, and find it interesting. models with more interesting qualities are more likely to be learnt from. |
| retention | learner must remember what was done by the model so that information can be encoded and stored in the memory system for later use. |
| reproduction | learner must be able to reproduce the modelled behaviour - must have the physical and psychological capacity to demonstrate the behaviour. |
| motivation | the learner must have the desire/motivation to repeat the observed behaviour |
| systemic desensitisation | application of classical conditioning to fears and phobias in humans |
| token economy | a form of behaviour modification in which tokens are earned for performing target behaviours , and can be exchanged later for some reinforcer that is valued by the learner. |
Created by:
Millie Cullender
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