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PSYCH 365 Exam #3
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Early Emotional Experience | infant’s first emotional relationship is almost always w/ parents/ primary caregivers |
| Humans are born completely helpless; thus infant are hard-wired to | Seek care Comfort Noruishment |
| Harlow’s Monkeys (1958) | More of the monkeys liked the velcro mother for comfort and safety then the other fake mother figure that has food - monkeys spent the majority of their time clinging to the fuzzy mother |
| John Bowlby | separation is emotionally devastating for the child Findings laid the foundation for attachment theory |
| Mary Ainsworth | studied how infants form emotional bonds over time / identified key stages of attachment behavior |
| Strange situation | research procedure for studying attachment in which a child is repeatedly separated from / reunited w/ the attachment figure |
| Attachment | a lasting emotional bond between an individual/ a few regular caregivers which include… proximity seeking, safe haven, secure base |
| Selective Bonding | Around 6-9 months of age, infants begin to form intense, selective bonds w/ specific people |
| Stranger anxiety | a fear of unfamiliar people |
| Function of Attachment | ATTACHMENT helps keep them safe as they explore Bowlby argued attachment system helps these infants balance these two competing needs |
| Object permanence | understanding that objects continue to exist even when we do not see or hear them |
| Functional Emotions in Clinical Psych | Each person’s “normal” set of emotions is different - Becomes disordered when emotions pop up too frequently, too intensely or are intferering w/ life |
| How disorders become diagnosed | Early- Most diagnoses were only for psychosis or neurosis / many clinicians didn't diagnose - considered a diagnosable disorder if it causes significant distress or impairment in someone’s life |
| Psychological policies changed (modern) | Insurances refuse to cover unless one has official diagnosis Desire to become more medical |
| Diagnostic or Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM) | A publication that lists how many disorders there are / the criteria for diagnosing each one - Universally defines each disorder one way - every therapist or researcher defines each diagnosis the same way |
| PROS of DSM | Helps identity problem Gives most correct treatment Gives structure of diagnosis |
| CONS of DSM | Many symptoms means you can have the same disgnosis but not share any symptoms Comorbidity is very high (co-occurences) Emotional disturbances are common across MANY disorders Moving away from many diagnositc categories |
| Comorbidity | meeting criteria for more than one psychological diagnosis at a time, for instance, an anxiety disorder and a mood disorder |
| Insel’s Dimensional Model (ignore strict categories) | Proposes diagnosing based on symptom spectrums (e.g. sadness, anxiety, sleep issues) - Ideal that psychological difficulties exist in degrees unlike phyiscal illness |
| Major Depressive Disorder(MDD) | depressed mood and/or loss of interest and pleasure, accompanied by feelings of worthlessness, agitation or inactivity, impaired sleep, increased or decreased appetite, and/or impaired concentration |
| Symptoms of MDD (persisting almost every day for at least 2 weeks (Have ANHEDONIA OR SAD/ UNHAPPY MOOD) | - Depressed mood or anhedonia - Fatigue - Eating changes - Insomnia / Hypersomnia - Impaired concentration - Feelings of worthlessness - Agitation - Inactivity |
| anhedonia | (loss of interest/pleasure in activities) |
| Lack of Happiness (unhappy mood) for MDD | Lack of happy positive emotions in those w/ depression - Studies have found decreased activity in striatum |
| striatum | a major dopamine producer in brain |
| Causes MDD | 1. genetic factors 2. Previous Harmful Experiences 3. Predispositions |
| Genetic Factors (cause of MDD) | Adoptive / twin studies confirm genetic influence - Still unable to find specific gene - One study in China found gene related to depression, rare gene outside of China |
| Previous Harmful Experiences (cause of MDD) | Stressful life events: can lead to depression or predispose for later - Racism & Discrimination effects -> greater risk of depression |
| Predispositions (cause of MDD) | Being predisposed to depression → greater reaction to negative events |
| Learned helplessness | failure to try to improve one’s current situation, resulting from lack of control in a prior situation |
| Attributions (MORE causes of MDD) | how we explain events / total lack of success in some situation may or may not lead to feelings of depression, depending on how one interprets the outcome |
| External attribution | explanation of behavior/ its outcome in terms of forces outside the individual - Assigning the reason to something outside yourself |
| Unstable attribution | explanation of behavior/ its outcome in terms of a temporary characteristic of the individual or the situation - Assigning the reason to a temporary condition that should not interfere with your later efforts |
| Specific | explanation of behavior or its outcome in terms of something that applies in a limited number of situations - Applies to certain situations and not others |
| Internal | explanation of behavior or its outcome in terms of forces within the individual - (relating to yourself) |
| Stable | explanation of behavior or its outcome in terms of a permanent characteristic of the individual Permanent |
| Global | explanation of behavior or its outcome in terms of something that is true of the person at nearly all times and situations - (relating to many or all situations) |
| External vs. Internal examples | outside factor vs. this is my fault - EX: You slept in late / missed a final Its my alarm’s fault, it’s the exam final, its only one exam |
| Stable vs. Unstable examples | issue is everlasting vs. this issues is temporary - EX: Your spouse rejected your proposal to move in together Their not ready to move in or I did something wrong so they don’t want to move in |
| Global vs. specific examples | issue applies to everything vs. this issue is only for one specific event - EX: You got an F on your very important presentation I suck at everything, I wasn’t going to do well because I already suck |
| Explanatory styles | consistent ways we explain events, typically are ubiquitous over time / events - characteristic way of making attributions for one’s successes and failures - Can be pessimistic or optimistic |
| How is Depression Diagnosed? | Clincian diagnosis Qiestionnaires |
| Clinician Diagnosis (for depression) | therapist diagnosis patient - clinician may simply talk with a client and conclude that the symptoms warrant a diagnosis of depression - Depression symptoms typically easy to spot |
| Questionnaires (for depression) | 1. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Invetory (MMPI) 2. Beck depression inventory 3. Hamilton Depression Rating Scale |
| Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Invetory (MMPI) | widely used to assist clinicians in diagnosing to assess personality traits/ psychopathology - Large number of true/ false self-report inventory questions |
| Beck Depression Inventory | self-report rating inventory that measures characteristic attitudes/ symptoms of depression |
| Hamilton Depression Rating Scale | clinical interview assessment tool used to measure the severity of depression - assess depressive symptoms, track progress, create individualized treatment plans |
| PROS (of questionnaires) | comparing scores over time after various durations of treatment, to quantify any progress as it occurs |
| CONS (of questonnaires) | lots of variability slightly different symptoms of depression, making it difficult to compare results across studies |
| Complexity of Diagnosing Depression | depression is episodic (hard to follow/ evaluate) Normal vs. Clinical Reaction |
| Subtypes of Depression Disorder | 1. anxious 2. melancholic 3. psychotic 4. atypical 5. dysthymia |
| Anxious Depression (subtype 1) | Mixture of anxiety / depression |
| Melancholic Depression (subtype 2) | Lack of pleasure Tends to be severe |
| Psychotic Depression (subtype 3) | Includes thought disorders similar to that observed in schizophrenia |
| Atypical Depression (subtype 4) | Non typical symptoms → increased appetite or sleep Anger/ impulse issues - sometimes people experience brief periods of enjoyment in response to positive events |
| Dysthymia | condition in which someone feels sad almost constantly for years at a time (synonym: persistent depressive disorder) |
| Treatments for Depression | CBT (cognitive behavioral therapy) Medications --> antidepressants/ ketamine THERAPY + MEDS= MOST EFFECTIVE |
| CBT for Depression (treament) | approach that seeks to alter the explanatory styles and other dysfunctional cognitive biases that characterize disordered individuals - targets explanatory style / maladaptive thoughts - Helps w/ our cognition which can change our emotions |
| Maladaptive thoughts: | unhelpful, negative thought patterns |
| Medications for Depression (treatment)- Antidepressants | - Tricyclic antidepressants - Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)- nardil - Selective Serotonin Reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)- keeps serotonin active longer in brain - Serotonin-Nonrepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs)- cymbalta |
| Medications for Depression (treatment)- Ketamine (new research) | Affects glutamate receptors indirectly affect synaptic connectivity, or the connections between neuron - Improves synapse connectivity |
| New Antidepressant Technology (for depression treatment) | Prozac less effective: anxiety involved Zoloft less effective: more fatigue |
| Other Treatment for Depression | Expression shapes our emotions (facial feedback hypothesis/ botox) Natural lifestyle changes (exercise/ constant sleep) |
| Bipolar disorder | characterized by mood swings / distrubances between extreme elation/ depressive episodes - Mood instability → swings from feeling very low to feeling very high |
| Symptoms of Bipolar | Increased irrabtability Auditory / visual stimulation Fast talking Impulsive behaviors Distratability Flight of ideas/ racing thoughts |
| Causes of Bipolar | Genetic factors play a BIG role in BP disorder (80-85% genetic) - stressful life factors/ other biological influences interact w/ genetic predisposition leading to disorder development (e.g. divorce) |
| Mania (BP 1): | behavior characterized by increased sense of energy, goal-directed activity, rapid thoughts and speech, and pleasurable activity without regard for harmful consequences, impulsive/ risky |
| Manic Episode / mania develops | → big life changes can happen during manic episode → has psychotic symptoms → impulsive behaviors → NOT experience major depressive episode → last 1 week |
| Hypomania (BP 2): | an episode defined by symptoms of mania that are not severe enough to cause problems in the person’s life |
| Hypomania develops | Less extreme actions during manic episode → ONLY 4 days (short) → NO hallucinations → hyopmanic is not as intense or severe, where as mania is more severe/ causes intense distress/ dysfunction |
| Risk Factors of Bipolar | Genetics → abnormal activation in the reward systems of the brain High feelings of Enthusiasm/ Pride |
| Depression in Bipolar Disorder | Usually atypical subtype - Symptoms include more sleep, lethargy, low enjoyment |
| Atypical depression | depression marked by low enjoyment, physical lethargy, and excessive sleep |
| Treatments for Bipolar | 1. pharmaceuticals (medication) 2. CBT |
| Pharmaceuticals (meds for BP treatment) | Lithium salts (mood stabilizing drug) Anti-seizure medications anticonvulsant drugs- depakote/ occassionally: antipsychotics- risperidone |
| CBT (for BP treatment) | working on distorted thoughts/ taking with someone to do that Recommended with medication |
| OTHER Treatments for BP | regular rhythms of sleeping, eating, and movement may encourage mood stability |
| Anxiety disorders: | class of disorders characterized by excessive or maladaptive anxiety reactions → more long term - Constant worrying → consumes daily activity NOT that the anxiety is “too great” |
| Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) | condition marked by flashbacks and nightmares about a traumatic event, avoidance of reminders of it, and an exaggerated startle reflex |
| Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): | characterized by almost constant nervousness and wide range of worries |
| Symptoms of GAD (required to last 6 months / need 3+)- uncontrol worrying | Worrying abt everyday things (health, finances, job, relationships Muscle tension Uncertainty/ avoidance of situation that will cause anxiety Insomnia / Fatigue/ Restless Irritability Comorbid w/ other disorder bc of commonality |
| Panic Disorder (PD): | characterized by repeated attacks of panic w/ sharply increased heart rate, rapid breathing, sweating, trembling, chest pains |
| Symptoms of Panic disorder (Repeated , unexpected attacks PLUS 1 of these symptoms) | 1+ months of fear of subsequent attacks Worry abt implications / consequences of panic attacks Significant changes in behavior |
| Features of PD | Physical: repeated attacks of increased heart rate, rapid breathing, noticeable sweating, trembling, and chest pains Cognitive / emotional: people having a panic attack often fear they are having a heart attack, acting crazy, fear of death/ danger |
| Leads often to Agoraphobia | excessive avoidance of public situations where a public panic attack might be embarrassing / would be difficult to escape if a panic attack happened |
| Specific Phobias | characterized by excessive fear of particular object or situation, strong enough to interfere w/ normal life |
| Features of Phobias | common in young people/ more common in women than in men is not that the fear is unrealistic, but that it is exaggerated / that it interferes w/ someone’s life |
| Symptoms of Phobias (6+ months is duration for diagnosis) | Intense fear/ public Fear of looking foolish Fear of criticism/ judgement/ embarrassment Shakiness, blushing, heart racing, sweating (in social situation) Spotlight effect |
| Phobia Findings | Common phobias of ancestral threats - Fears are wired into us → people may be born with a predisposition to fear them Phobias are often of items we cannot control |
| Phobias demand out attention (KEY characteristic) | This idea of attentional bias → focus on the things our mind wants to pay attention to / phobia magnifies that tendency |
| Causes of Anxiety Disorders (ALL) | - Lived experiences - Genetic + Hereditary Explanations - Epigenetics |
| Lived experiences (causes of anxiety disorders) | - Little Albert - Twins example (Kendler, Myers, Prescott, 2002) - Trauma does not predict PTSD development - Better predictor → emotional status before trauma |
| Genetic + Hereditary Explanations (cause of anixety disorders) | Relatives w/ anxiety disorders; monozygotic twins have stronger overlap than fraternal (dizygotic) twins |
| Epigenetics (cause of anxiety disorders) | changes in the expression of genes—how often they are activated to make new proteins—elicited by environmental conditions - Influence on brain anatomy / family environment |
| Hippocampus in Anxiety Disorders | responsible for control of the episodic memory / stress hormones - People with a smaller than average hippocampus are at greater risk of developing PTSD |
| Treatment for Anxiety Disorders (GAD + Phobias) | 1. CBT 2. Exposure therapy (system desensitization) 3. Virtual Reality exposure therapy (VRET) 4. Medication |
| CBT (treament for anxiety disorders) | reinterpreting or reappraising the situation, solving problems, relaxation/ meditation - GAD= emphasize identifying feelings of worry - PD= emphasize reinterpreting physiological symptoms |
| Exposure therapy (system desensitization) (treatment for anxiety disorders) | client is exposed to the feared object under conditions that should minimize fear - Most effective after repetitions |
| Virtual Reality exposure therapy (VRET) (treatment for anxiety disorders) | VR allows for patients to practice desensitization without real object (more virtual)/ shows great progress |
| Medication (treatment for anxiety disorders) | Anxiolytics (tranquilizer) - EX: benzodiazepines such as Xanax (alprazolam), diazepam (valium), chlodiazepoxide (Librium) THERAPY + MEDS= MOST EFFECTIVE Antidepressants --> SSRIs |
| Tranquilizers | drugs that induce calmness and that can be used to treat anxiety |
| Anxiolytics (tranquilizer) | drugs that decrease anxiety - Facilitate effectiveness of neurotransmitters GABA --> suppresses activity in amygdala - Side effects → suppress activity in much of the brain (drowsiness, memory impairment) |
| OCD Misconceptions | Obessions/ compulsion that relieve anxiety Continually wash hands/ check something multiple times is typical and many people could have that |
| Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) | condition marked by intrusive thoughts and repetitive actions that a person feels compelled to perform - serious condition w/ intrusive obsessions/ compulsions |
| Obsessions | recurrent and persistent thoughts, impulses, and images that are experienced as intrusive and inappropriate, agressive/ harm, ordering, doubts, contamination that cause distress |
| Compulsions | repetitive behavior or mental act that a person feels internal pressure to perform - washing, checking, arranging, neutralizing - Driven by INTERNAL pressures to stop obsession |
| Symptoms of OCD (has to take up at least 1+ hours/day or cause distress/ dysfunction) | When obessions/ compulsions are inappropriate to the situation When it causes distress/ interferes with daily life |
| OCD & Emotions | Disgust --> with regard to any feeling of being contaminated Shame or Guilt --> higher levels of shame / report stronger than average guilt feelings |
| Treatments for OCD | Training in self compassion --> changing stories people tell about themselves to quiet obsessions - CBT: Exposure w/ response prevention (ERP) - Medications - THERAPY + MEDS= MOST EFFECTIVE |
| CBT: Exposure w/ response prevention (ERP) (treatment for OCD) | Exposure- repeated/ prolonged exposrue to stimuli that provoke obsessions (anxiety) Response prevention- resist compulsions/ rituals |
| Medication (treatment for OCD) | SSRI antidepressants (mild anti-anxiety effect) also provide therapeutic benefit for OCD, increase availability of serotonin |
| Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) | Condition marked by deceitful, impulsive, and aggressive behavior, with disregard for safety of self and others and lack of remorse |
| Traits of ASPD | common ideas of psychopathy / sociopathy - Theme of willingness to harm or manipulate other people, with no concern for their well-being and no signs of remorse |
| Symptoms of ASPD | Lack of remorse for harmful actions/ harmed caused to others Persistent deceit/ lying Impulsivity/ Aggression Irresponsibility with reckless disregard for their own and others’ safety |
| Causes & Predispositions of ASPD | Low activation of amygdala / prefrontal cortex when viewing suffering Condition often begins early in childhood Heavy substance use is common comorobidity is really HIGH |
| Empathy in ASPD- A Key Difference | - emotional empathy - empathic accuracy |
| Emotional empathy | feeling what another feels (absent in ASPD) |
| Empathic accuracy | recognizing emotion in others (still possible in ASPD) |
| Treatment ASPD | CBT DBT (dialectical-behavior therapy) Medications |
| CBT for ASPD treatment | changes clients maladaptive behaviors/ dysfunctional thought patterns + modeling healthy ways relating to others / reinforcement → wanting to change your behaviors |
| DBT (dialectical-behavior therapy) ASPD treatment | CBT combined w/ mindfulness mediation → learning to reduce your distress in the moment/ interpersonal effectiveness |
| Medications for ASPD treatment | Drug therapy does NOT directly treat personality disorders - Co-occuring conditions with ASPD → antidepressants, anti-anxiety drugs, mood stabilizers, antipsychotics |
| Stress (stress & health- chap 7) | state of worry or mental tension caused by a difficult situation one could have gone through |
| Analogy- Bending a Metal | Everytime you bend a metal, you weaken it - beyond its limit it can deform or break- chronic stress can negatively impact physical/ mental well-being |
| Stress Today is Different from Our Ancestors | Our stress response system evolved primarily to address sudden threats to survival / reproduction |
| Modern day stressors | usually neither life threatening or immediate, our nervous system still responds to them in the same way as it would to physical danger |
| Causes of Stress | Eustress Distress |
| Eustress: | good stress that helps you stay motivated / reach goals - Marriage Birth of a child Taking a vacation Buying a home |
| Distress | bad stress that feel overwhelming and upsetting - A death of a love one Divorce Losing one’s job Relationship or breakups |
| Cultural Differences (stress) | Work Family Poverty |
| Work (cultural difference) | Communication barriers Different working styles Misunderstandings because of different cultural norms |
| Family (cultural difference) | Caregiving practices Learning / education Family roles/ child’s behavior |
| Poverty (cultural difference) | Economic hardship Lack of resources Social isolation Unemployment |
| Measurement of Stress | Social readjustment rating scale - tracking life changes |
| Social readjustment rating scale (Key points) | Life changes vary in stress level Research study: over 300 people rated the stress level of different life events - Creation of SRRS: they used the averages of the research/ scores |
| How to use scale Social readjustment rating scale | Check life events you’ve experienced in the past year Total the points: each event has a certain stress value (points) To measure you stress level, check the events you have experienced in the past 12 months/ total their point values |
| Flaws in the Social readjustment rating scale | Does not cover all stressors Minor events can add up more then major ones Accuracy not the best- vague items Stress varies on person (perception of stressful events) |
| Slavich critiques (new way to measure stress) | Stress research treats all stressors the same Stressors differ in severity, duration, frequency, timing in life Lack of detail leads to confusing or contradictory results |
| How body’s Stress response systems: | event or events that are interpreted as threatening to an individual and which elicit physiological and behavioral responses |
| What happens in our body during times of stress | stress physiology sympathetic nervous system |
| Stress physiology DEF | how the body reacts to stress |
| Sympathetic nervous system | activated - Body goes into fight or flight response Heart rate increases Breathing gets faster Pupils dilate Digestion slows down Adrenal glands release adrenaline / cortisol |
| Stress Physiology elements | Involves the HPA axis, which gets activated, releases cortisol/ adrenaline, prepares body to deal with challenges - Short term stress involves cortisol rises - Long term stress involves too much cortisol for too long |
| HPA axis | hypothalamus + pituitary + adrenal glands - readies the body for vigorous action - responds more slowly / lasts longer, through adrenaline, cortisol, and other hormonal mechanisms - activated by stress |
| Effect of Prolonged HPA Activation | Energy drain over time |
| How Cortisol Works | Stress → HPA axis → cortisol release - Cortisol mobilizes all three types of fuel to come out of storage and enter the blood stream |
| Negative Impacts on Health | Worse when stress feels unpredictable or uncontrollable Leads to physical and emotional strain - Ongoing job stress Difficult daily relationships |
| Chronic Stress | - stress & illness - stress and the brain - stress and the brain damage |
| Stress & Illness (chronic stress) | Chronic stress makes people more likely to catch colds Social support (e.g. hugs), can reduce illness severity |
| Stress and the brain (chronic stress) | Stress affects focus / planning (prefrontal cortex) Strengthens areas linked to fear / habits Can lead to emotional impulsive decisions |
| Stress & the Brain Damage (chronic stress) | High cortisol levels damage memory (hippocampus) Cortisol increases metabolic rate → causes cells in the hippocampus to become more vulnerable to damage |
| Social stress: | long term memory changes (studies w/ baby rats) |
| General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) | Hans Selye’s term for body’s reaction to any threat - shows more for long term stress → body under pressure → health problems / exhausation |
| Stress in Selye’s terms | nonspecific response of the body to any demand made on it |
| Stress in McEwen’s terms | event or events that are interpreted as threatening to an individual and which elicit physiological and behavioral responses |
| 3 Stages of GAS: | 1. Alarm 2. Resistance 3. Exhausation |
| Alarm (FIRST STAGE) | Brief period of high arousal of the sympathetic nervous system, readying the body for vigorous activity - Body’s fight or flight system turns ON → adrenal glands release adrenaline - release cortisol → gives body extra energy |
| Resistance (SECOND STAGE) | Stage of prolonged but moderate arousal in reponse to some stressor - Body stays alert- but NOT as stongly as before - Fight or flight response SLOWS down - Rlease cortisol to keep ready |
| Exhausation (THIRD STAGE) | Reaction to prolonged stressor, characterized by weakness, fatigue, loss of appetite, lack of interest - Individual feels tired, weak, loss of appetite - Immune system gets weaker |
| Why does this happen to our health? (GAS) | Emotional stress affects Immune system Cardiovascular health Mental well-being |
| Stressful Events Affect Health | Certain events are universally recognized as highly stressful Consequences after highly stressful event Affect behaviors |
| Shared Exposure (stress) (EXAMPLE of Losing a Spouse) | Both spouses could face same cause Accident Illness Food poisoning |
| Behavior Changes (stress) (EXAMPLE of Losing a Spouse) | Grieving spouse may struggle to obtain health habits (e.g. exercise) - Increases risk of accidents or illness Higher chance of death within months after losing a spouse |
| More Serious Problems Develop with Long-term stress | 1. weakens immune system 2. too much inflammation causes health problems 3. affects white blood cells 4. stress can feel like being physically sick 5. severe stress can cause mental / physical symptoms |
| Cytokines | small proteins that contribute to the immune process by regulating inflammation at the site of an injury and by communicating to the brain to initiate appropriate responses by the brain |
| Appraisal --> shapes stress response | How we view a task affects: Our emotional response Level of stress we feel Can increase or reduce emotional impact - threat vs. challenge appraisal |
| Threat Appraisal | Situation seems more than one can handle (subjective interpretation of the likelihood, acuteness, vulnerability, regarding a difficult situation) - Occurs when individuals perceive potential harm or loss, |
| Challenge Appraisal | Feels you have resources to handle situation (someone interprets stressful situation as an opportunity for growth) - Occurs when individuals perceive the stressor as an opportunity for growth |
| Optimal functioning | performing at your best - Moderate level of stress helps reach optimal functioming But too much stress hurts performance Finding right balance is key |
| Social relationships | degree of integration in social networks |
| Instrumental social support | individuals provide concrete help/ tangible goods / services to meet another person’s needs (give more advice) |
| Emotional social support | providing comfort, empathy, reassurance to someone in need, helping them feel cared for (give more social support) |
| Stress buffering | Support from others helps manage stress/ protects health Social connections improve overall health (mental/ physical) |
| Expressing Emotions | Showing emotions (e.g. crying) can have positive effects Crying can improve mood when others offer support |
| Support | kind words, comforting touch, friendly actions |
| Defense mechanisms can be organized into 4 categories | 1. Psychotic 2. Immature 3. Neurotic 4. Mature |
| Psychotic | Denial are common in young children, but indicate trauma or psychopathology in adults |
| Immature | fantasy and projection - avoidance is limited to inaccurate explanations for the problem (as in projection) or implausible solutions (as in fantasy) |
| Neurotic | displacement, intellectualization, reaction formation, and repression - least point anxiety-related behavior in a less destructive direction |
| Mature | suppression/ sublimation - Be the healthiest bc they are intentional and/or lead to prosocial, constructive behavior |
| Defense mechanism | unconscious strategies whereby people protect themselves from anxious thoughts or feelings - Anna Freud (his daughter) expanded on this idea by classifying / analyzing specific defense mechanisms |
| Types of Defense Mechanisms (DFPDIRRSS) | denial fantasy projection displacement intellectualization reaction formation repression suppression sublimation |
| Denial | refusing to acknowledge the reality of an unpleasant of threatening situation |
| Fantasy | retreating to fantasy or daydreaming as a way to fulfill desires |
| Projection | attributing one’s own unacceptable desires, motives, feelings to another person (tend to project your emotions onto others) |
| Displacement | directing disturbing feelings toward an alternative target, rather than the person or event that really elicited them (get angry at my boss, but yell at my wife) |
| Intellectualization | focusing purely on the abstract, logical aspects of an issue or experience, rather than the personal or emotional aspects |
| Reaction formation | adopting / expressing attitudes + behaviors that are the extreme opposite of the underlying attitudes / behaviors |
| Repression | forgetting or blocking memory of unpleasent or intolerable events; repression is automatic, rather than conscious / intentional |
| Suppression | making a conscious, deliberate decision not to think abt a disturbing topic at a particular time |
| Sublimation | expression socially unacceptable desires or impulses in a manner that is constructive / socially condoned |
| Strengths- Types of Defense Mechanisms | helps describe / categorize diff coping strategies - Allowed comparisons between defense mechanisms based on how healthy they were |
| Weakness- Types of Defense Mechanisms | Not a lot of strong evidence to support freud’s claims |
| Emotional regulation | Strategies we use to control which emotions we have, when we have them, and how strongly we experience and express them |
| Emotion regulation and coping similar but not the same | coping= always an attempt to reduce negative emotion emotion regulation= trying to increase or decrease positive emotions, or even trying to increase negative emotion |
| Coping | focuses only on reducing negative emotions after a stressful event |
| Active coping --> | only focused on reducing negative emotions depending on situation your in / change problematic situation |
| Process model of emotion regulation (james gross) | model that organizes emotion-regulation strategies according to their place in the emotion process itself (5 key strategies) |
| 3 Regulation Strategies | 1. Siutation-focused strategies 2. Cognition-focused strategies 3. Response-focused strategies |
| Situation-focused strategies: | Controlling the situation we are in, either by choosing to be in situation rather than another or by changing the situation |
| Cognition-focused strategies | Selectively attending to certain aspects of the situation, or changing the way you think about the situation, in order to encourage some emotions and/or deter others |
| Response-focused strategies | trying to change aspects of emotional responding once the emotion has already occurred - happens after emotion starts: calming down, talking it out, hiding feelings from others |
| 2 types Situation Focused Strategies | 1. Situation selection 2. Situation modification |
| Situation selection | choosing to enter or avoid situations based on how they’ll make you feel / likely to elicit a particular emotion - Avoiding stress is okay sometimes, but overdoing it can hurt your growth/ relationships |
| Situation modification | changing the situation to feel better / get a desired emotion or improve the situation - Helps lower stress + Increases positive moods/ |
| Savoring: | taking the time to mindfully enjoy a simple, pleasant experience |
| Solutions to Situation Modifications | Changing situation to feel better/ reduce stress Feeling control boosts mood/ health - Major barrier to active coping |
| Cognition Focused Strategies TYPES | 1. Attentional control 2. Distraction 3. Cognitive Reappraisal |
| Attentional Control | directing one’s attention away from stimuli and thoughts likely to elicit unwanted emotions - intentionally focus on a certain stimulus while ignoring other factors |
| Difficulty abt attentional control | requires cognitive energy |
| Distraction | focusing your attention away from something upsetting / replacing unpleasant thoughts with an alternative thought or activity |
| Cognitive Reappraisal | means looking at a situation in a more neutral or positive way, thinking it could have been worse after something bad happened |
| Reappraisal can... | Lower stress Reduce brain activity linked to fear (in amygdala) Improve happiness |
| Cognitive restructuring: | changing the way one thinks about a major emotional issue or frequently occurring situation |
| TYPES of Reappraisal: | 1. Detached 2. Perspective-taking 3. Positive 4. Arousal |
| Detached reappraisal: | focusing on non emotional detail instead of feelings - thinking about a stimulus or situation in a detached, neutral way that minimizes emotions |
| Perspective-taking reappraisal | trying to see another point of view (from another person’s) - appraising a situation from another person’s perspective/ altering own emotional response |
| Forgiveness (another cognitive reappraisal) | finding a way to understand one’s harming behaviors, letting go of the anger |
| Positive reappraisal: | when you are looking for something good in a bad situation (benefit finding) - focusing on positive aspects of negative or challenging situations (resilience) |
| Resilience: | recovering relatively well or easily from negative events |
| Arousal reappraisal | focus on what your body feels, not just the situation - reinterpreting the meaning of one’s own physiological arousal as a sign of excitement, rather than anxiety |
| 2 Responses for Response Focused Strategies | 1. Mental response 2. Behavioral response |
| Mental response components | 1. suppression 2. catharsis 3. rumination |
| Suppression (mental reponse) | concealing one’s nonverbal expression of emotion so others do not know what you are feeling - blocking the behavioral expression of an emotion |
| Catharsis (mental response) | Releasing built up emotions → vent to friends Can feel relieving but may harm relationships if unregulated |
| Rumination (mental response) | thinking continuously about a problem for a long period of time, focusing on negative aspects of the situation instead of possible solutions |
| Behavioral response components | 1. drug/ alcohol 2. emotional eating 3. exercise 4. mediation/ relaxation |
| Drug/ Alcohol (behavioral response) | Relying on alcohol or other drugs to escape from problems can easily develop into a problem itself --> could lead to binge drinking / other excessive use |
| Emotional eating (behavioral response) | Eating to cope w/ emotional distress Often leads to feeling worse afterward |
| Exercise (behavioral response) | Exercise helps take mind off stress Leads to healthier mind/ body Boosts endorphins |
| Mediatation & Relaxation (behavioral response) | relaxation meditation mindfulness meditation mindful awareness |
| Relaxation | helps body reduce muscular tension/ autonomic arousal |
| Meditation | allows us to control our emotions/ focus on our thoughts |
| Mindfulness meditation | staying calm/ focused on the present without getting lost in worries |
| Mindful awareness | noticing / letting go unhelpful thoughts |
| Bowlby aruged that the attachment system helps these infants balance | 2 competing needs |
| (1) competing need of attachment | As long as a trusted caregiver is nearby / in regular contact the child will play happily |
| (2) competing need of attachment | As soon as the caregiver is out of sight, the child does something to bring them back |
| Attachment doesn’t just shape behavior in the moment | Shapes the child’s internal model (schema) of relationships |
| How Do Infants Determine Their Attachment Figures | 1. Behavioral 2. Biological |
| Behavioral | Importance of synchrony between two individuals’ behaviors as a possible trigger for an attachment system - separatin distress |
| Separation distress: | emotional distress experienced and/or displayed when one is separated from an attachment figure |
| Biological | oxytocin is a hormone linked to bonding |
| Oxytocin | pituitary hormone released by female mammals while giving birth and while nursing, and by both males and females during sex |
| Types Attachment Styles | 1. secure 2. anxious ambivalent 3. avoidant 4. disorganized |
| Secure attachment | exploration when the attachment figure is present, crying and protest when the attachment figure leaves, and easy soothing when the figure returns |
| Secure Infant | 65% of infants show secure attachement pattern Trusting bond w/ caregiver |
| Secure Parenting Style | Consistently responsive Emotionally available Safe haven to infant |
| Anxious-ambivalent attachment | hesitant to explore even when the attachment figure is present, become intensely distressed when the attachment figure leaves/ are difficult to soothe when the attachment figure returns |
| Anxious-ambivalent infant | 20% of infants show anxious ambivalent pattern Cling to parent more Not easily soothed |
| Anxious-ambinvalent parenting style | Inconsistent responsiveness Overly attentive / emotionally unavailable Difficult w/ boundaries |
| Avoidant attachment | babies seem unconcerned with the caregiver’s presence or absence, playing quietly and independently either way |
| Avoidant attachment infant | 15% of infants show avoidant attachment pattern Outwardly calm Doesn’t seek comfort |
| Avoidant parenting style | May be present physically but… Emotionally unavailable Does not offer comfort |
| Disorganized attachment | infant displays intense anxiety even when the caregiver is present; frightened, yet unable to turn to the caregiver for comfort |
| Cultural Differences | cultural differences in attachment styles, likely due to varying parenting practices - Japan / Israel = Higher rates of anxious ambivalent infants - Western= Higher rates of avoidant infants |
| Cuteness aka kindchenschema | physical traits/ behavioral scale of youth - One striking effect is that people seem to respond to cuteness by becoming a bit more careful - lack of coordination/ clumsiness |
| Cuteness is Functional | Infants are unable to care for themselves Seeing infants w/ higher Kindchenschema traits leads to adults |
| Consummate Love (Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love) | ideal form of love, achieved when all three components of love are present: intimacy, passion, and commitment - Ultimate goal in relationships, representing deep/ fulfilling connection |
| Intimacy | state of being intimate, involving close / personal relationship - it can be emotional, physical (both) |
| Passion Love | experience frequent thoughts about the other person, intense desire to be together, and excitement from the partner’s attention |
| Commitment | strong attachment with an emphasis on security, mutual care, affection, and shared fun |
| KEY Idea of (Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love) | best relationship aims to develop/ maintain all three components for a lasting love! |
| Demand-withdraw: | marital interaction pattern in which one partner escalates their insistence on discussing some topic (typically an area of conflict) while the other retreats further and further to avoid the conversation |
| Companionate love | strong attachment with an emphasis on security, mutual care, affection, and shared fun |
| Who do we find attractive? | most people can agree on these features that enhance attractiveness: - health, average lookinh, happiness, intelligence, humor - Perceptions of physical attractiveness / personality are NOT independent |
| How do we react to this? (based on attractiveness) | Women= Darting glances/ quickly looking away Tossed their heads Flipped their hair Men= Few nonverbal flirting behaviors than women because when they are interested (direct) |
| Attachment theory | accounts for the way in which emotional attachments establshed early in infancy transfer over to adult romantic love relationships |
| STUDY (Hazan & Shaver, 1987) | Adult attachments are relationships in which one or both people prefer to be in close contact and experience distress during extended separation (proximity-seeking) |
| Main Adult Attachment Style | 1. Secure 2. Anxious 3. Avoidant |
| Secure (adult attachment style) | comfortable w/ intimacy/ autonomy think of themselves as lovable and worthy |
| Anxious (adult attachment style) | crave closeness, but fear abandonment want to be in a deep, intense relationship |
| Avoidant (adult attachment style) | dismiss intimacy, value independence seem to have given up on committed, intimate relationships in a similar way |
| How love is expressed | Avoidant: fear of intimacy (closed off) Anxious: craves intimacy (can be overbearing) |
| How we manage conflict | Avoidant: withdraws, avoids, minimizes emotional expression Anxious: escalates, demands, ears abandonment |
| How we respond to stress within partnerships | Avoidant: detaches, self-regulates, avoids intimacy Anxious: overwhelmed, seeks reassurance, ruminates |
| Traits of Securely Attached Individuals | Described their most important love experience as happy, friendly, and trusting - Being more emotionally regulated Higher satisfaction w/ relationship |
| Attachment Style Measured in 2 dimensions | 1. anxiety dimension 2. avoidance dimension |
| Anxiety dimension: | measures whether a person generally has positive or negative feelings of self-worth and desirability as a partner |
| Avoidance dimension | measures whether a person generally has positive or negative beliefs about other people |
| Assortative mating | tendency to marry partners who are more like themselves than would be expected due to chance |
| Some common traits that attract | Physical attractiveness Personality Religious beliefs Education level Social class |
| Why assortative mating matters | It will increase satisfaction Reduce potential for conflict Better shared value alignment |
| Signs of Stability in Relationships | 1. assortative mating 2. secure attachment 3. emotional responsiveness 4. positive emotional climate 5. constructive conflict management 6. commitment/ investment |
| Assortative Mating (signs of stability) | Similarity in values, lifestyle, personality promotes long-term |
| Secure Attachment (signs of stability) | Comfort w/ closeness / trust Confident in partner’s availability / commitment |
| Emotional Responsiveness (signs of stabilty) | Attunement to each other’s emotional needs Validating / supportive reactions |
| Positive Emotional Climate (signs of stability) | Frequent expression of affection, humor, gratitude Low levels of hostility / contempt |
| Constructive Conflict Management (signs of stability) | Ability to manage disagreements respectfully Use of repair attempts during conflict (e.g. humor/ apologies) |
| Commitment & Investment (signs of stability) | Shared long-term goals Wilingness to prioritize the relationship |
| Gottman’s “4 Horsemen of the Apocalypse” | 1. Criticism 2. Contempt 3. Defensiveness 4. Stone walling |
| Criticism | criticizing the character of the partner rather than a specific behavior most destructive includes attacking the spouse (or the spouse’s relatives), listing the spouse’s flaws |
| Contempt | dishonoring by sarcasm, ridicule, or by manner, such as eye-rolling suggesting that the spouse is worthless, incompetent |
| Defensiveness | evasion of responsibility by excuse or counterattack one defends oneself by denying that the complaint is valid |
| Stone Walling | withdrawal or indifference to interaction ignore or shut out the spouse who is trying to communicate something |
| Caring Emotions in Relationships & Society | Caring emotions are essential for building / maintaining human relationships |
| 2 Core Types (of caring emotions) | 1. Compassion 2. Nurturant love |
| Compassion (core type of caring) | arises when we see someone in pain; motivates us to alleviate suffering / caring and concerned response to another person’s distress |
| Nurturant love (core type of caring) | arises when we someone vunlerable; motives us to protect / care for them |
| Function (BOTH Compassion/ Nurturant love) | Both promote prosocial behavior, cooperation, stronger social bonds |
| Nurturant love DEF | an emotion that arises from perceiving someone as vulnerable / in need of care, which induces caregiving + protective behavior |
| Eliciting conditions (of nurturant love) | elicited by indications of others’ vulnerability or dependence |
| Behavioral outcomes (of nurturant love) | leads to increased vigilance, caregiving, protective behavior |
| Cognitive effects (of nurturant love) | allows for systematic processing to adequately addres the vulnerable person’s needs |
| Social significance (of nurturant love) | makes valuable contributions to the formation/ sustaining of close interpersonal relationships |
| Empathy | ability to understand/ share the feelings of another |
| 2 Components of Empathy | 1. cognitive empathy 2. emotional empathy |
| Cognitive empathy (perspective taking) | perspective-taking |
| Emotional empathy (affective empathy) | empathizing with another / creates an emotional bond/ facilitates helping behaviors |
| Empathic accuracy | ability to figure out what another person is thinking and feeling |
| Sympathy | concern, attention, and empathic sadness for another person who is suffering - empathy without emotional sharing |
| Compassion DEF | sympathy w/ the desire to alleviate pain |
| Personal distress | self-focused overwhelm/ self-focused anxiety in the face of another’s suffering |
| Types of Empathy Response | 1. empathic concern 2. emotional contagion 3. perspective-taking |
| Empathic concern (type of empathy response) | warm compassionate response |
| Emotional contagion (type of empathy response) | unpremeditated mirroring of emotions |
| Perspective-taking (type of empathy response) | imagining another’s experience |
| Empathy- What It Is | Feeling w/ another person Involves understanding their emotions as if they were your own |
| Empathy- What its NOT | sympathy & personal distress |
| Gender & Empathy | Prisoner's dilemma - Women rate their own empathetic feelings as far more intense than do men |
| Prisoner’s dilemma (task) | each player has the opportunity to cooperate or defect; the best outcome is if both people cooperate, but if your partner defects, you’re better off if you also defect than if you cooperate |
| Sympathy (related to helping) | Concern for another’s suffering (without required action) May lead to helping if paired w/ responsibility |
| Compassion (related to helping) | Stronger emotional response Includes motivaton to help (action-oriented) |
| Embarrassment (emotion/ social status) | one violates a social rule/ attracts unwanted social attention |
| Embarrassment function | lets others know we care about their opinion/ hope for their understanding - Context matters → we only feel embarrassed if other people are around |
| What happens if we don’t display embarrassment? | Negative social effects - Tell others that we do not care - Tells others we are not sorry |
| Why is Embarrassment Important | social benefits= Decreased punishment Increased likeability / help Affiliation/ Status= Showing embarrassment → helps repair bonds → shared cultural knowledge / resources → survival |
| Pride | accept credit for a positive outcome that supports a positive aspect of your self-concept - You feel pride when something good happens |
| Pride function | confirms that we are socially valuable - Pride → self confidence → likeability, social bonds, mating opportunities → survival |
| Psychological Strucutre of Pride | 1. Hubristic pride 2. Authentic pride |
| Hubristic pride | Feelings of arrogance Stems from uncontrollable causes such as natural talent Classified as positive/ makes us feel pleasant= Intrapersonal context/ Survival context |
| Authentic pride | Feelings of accomplishment/ confidence Stems from controllable causes such as intentional effort |
| When can Authentic Pride be classified as positive? | Intrapersonal context= positive affect/ makes us feel pleasant Interpersonal context= (positive affect) Survival/ reproductive context= (positive affect/ obtain resources differently) |
| When can Hubristic Pride be classified as positive? | Intrapersonal context= positive affect/ makes us feel pleasant Survival context= (obtain resources differently) Interpersonal context= (off-putting, harm social connections, lead to conflict) |
| Gratitude | when someone does something kind for us/ does not seem to expect us to return the favor |
| Gratitude function | lets others know we are appreciative, tell us someone care abt us / our needs, and see relationship as communal |
| Communal relationships | Help without expecting reciprocation Concern for others’ well-being Close friends, family, or romantic partners Long-term, invested time into it |
| Exchange relationships | Fairness (an eye for an eye) Transactional Strangers or acquantiances, more business-like Quick / momentary |
| Benefits for Gratitude | 1. decreases loneliness/ stress 2. increases self-esteem, life satisfaction, optimism, trust |
| Automatic goal pursuit | phenomenon whereby goals are activated and pursued without conscious intention |
| Final feature of goal setting | approach vs. avoidance goals |
| Approach goals | focus is on obtaining a desired positive outcome/ on the skills needed to succeed |
| Avoidance goals | focus on preventing a negative outcome |
| Promotion: | self-control and goal setting that is focused on approaching a desired outcome |
| Prevention regulatory focus: | self-control and goal setting that is focused on avoiding an undesired outcome |
| Theories of Motivation | Many automatic, unconscious actions are goal pursuits We also consciously work toward multiple complicated, long-term goals / make life harder in short term |
| Adaptive / Long-term goals: | conscious and deliberate - require intention planning, reflection, self-control |
| Short-term/ individualized goals: | unconscious or automatic - Immediate emotional cues, impulses, or environmental triggers |
| Goal Setting Theory | a goal is an object or aim of an action / mental conception of a possible future state that provides energy and direction to current behavior - mental conception of a future state |
| Characteristics of Goal Setting theory | 1. Goals in future 2. Goals are theoretical and thus exist as mental concepts 3. Goals are often fixed—there is a clear desired outcome 4. Goals shape behavior– we behave differently because we have set a goal |
| How Goals Works (4 Main Ways) | 1. Direction attention 2. Mobilize effort 3. Prolong persistence 4. Promote learning/ behavioral growth |
| Direction attention | goals help focus amid distractions direct attention to the work needed to accomplish the goal Clear goals = clear focus |
| Mobilize effort: | Simply setting a goal increase energy → pure act of setting the goal seems to lead to an increase in the energy available to pursue it (acts like motivational fuel) |
| Prolong persistence | You’re more likely to stick w/ your efforts for longer than if you had not set a goal NO goal = easier to quit early |
| Promote learning / behavioral growth | Goals are often require new skills or changes in behavior |
| Goal setting: | intentionally setting goals in order to motivate behavior |
| Active control: | control condition in an experiment where participants engage in activities that match the treatment condition in terms of variables like time, effort, type of activity, and engagement with the research team |
| The Best Goals (Locke & Latham, 1990) are... | 1. Difficult (challenge) 2. Specific |
| Difficult (best goals) | Challenging goals are good and step up and go out of our comfort zones/ appears to get us more energized, more willing to step it up |
| Specific (best goals) | Improve performance by enhancing the attention and learning aspects of goal striving Clarity gives direction |
| Mapping the Path toward- Goal Success (chunking/ feedback) | 1. Proximal goals 2. Distal goals |
| Proximal goals | short-term goals |
| Distal goals | long-term goals |
| Expectancy-value theory: | theory that pursuing goals result from expectations of likely success (expectancy) and perceived worth of the desired outcome (value) |
| Expectancy and value are thought to interact: | Motivation is highest when expectancy / value are both high |
| Goal System Theory: | how goals relate to each other and to the means by which we achieve our goals that argues that goals and means interconnect in hierarchies |
| How Goal System Theory Works (Part 1) | 1. Structual aspects --> - superordinate goals - subordinate goals - means |
| Structural aspects: | hierarchical connections among superordinate goals, subordinate goals, and means |
| Superordiante goals | BIG goals / “Higher order” Goal |
| Subordinate goals | “GOALS” that support superordinate goals |
| Means | Small goals Resources Strategies - EX: meet with advisor, study groups |
| How Goal System Theory Works (Part 2) | 3 structural aspects ALL work together → its a NETWORK: similar to our brains - Influence can spread vertically / horizontally - Resources are limited (main issue) - network model can be inhibitory |
| 3 structural aspects ALL work together → its a NETWORK: | activation of one network suppresses activation in others, just as some goals are prioritized over others in general or at a given moment |
| Influence can spread vertically / horizontally | vertically= activating a goal can lead to you dedicate more resources to the means associated with that goal horizontally= spending resources on one means can spread to other |
| RESOURCES ARE LIMITED (main issues) | recognizes that the resources we have for pursuing goals and their associated means (e.g. time/ money) NOT infinite |
| Allocational properties | limited resource nature of goal resources |
| The network model can be inhibitory (goal system) | Activation of one network suppress activation others Some goals are prioritized |
| Discrepancy Theory: | comparing one’s present state to an ideal state reveals a discrepancy or gap/ motivated to close gaps between present /ideal state → this motivation triggers relevant plans |
| The present state: | where we are now |
| The ideal state | where we want to be |
| The GAP Generates (between present/ ideal) | 1. Ethusiasm= energy component of motivation 2. Action= direction component that will lead to the discrepancy being eliminated |
| Correct actions | in discrepancy theories of goal setting, the actions one takes to bring one’s present self closer to one’s ideal self |
| How Discrepancy theory works | 1. discrepancy reduction 2. discrepancy creation |
| Discrepancy reduction: | motivating discrepancy between a present state and an ideal state is clearly defined, time-limited, and often externally determined - motivation ends once goal reached |
| Discrepancy creation: | person intentionally manufactures an ideal state in order to motivate themselves to reach it - push ideal state further |
| TOTE Model | Test → compare current / ideal state Operate → change present state Test → test again Exit → leave / exit |
| Monitoring your Goals | process of measuring progress and giving yourself feedback during goal pursuit (this is once you identified a series of proximal goals) |
| Cybernetic model: | theory that human motivation works in feedback loops, kicking into action when discrepancies between present and ideal states are detected and quieting when ideal states are reached |
| Intention-behavior gap: | people often fail to enact desired changes in behavior, despite having very good intentions |
| 3 Steps to Pursuing Goals | 1. Avoiding / Resisting Temptation 2. Realistic Mental Simulation 3. Planning Ahead |
| STEP 1-Avoiding / Resisting Temptation (pursuing goals) | desire goal conflict situations greater shot at success if we craft our environment restraint bias Requires honest reflection to overcome |
| Desire-goal conflict situations: | when we are presented w/ things we desire that are in direct co flict w/ our goals |
| We have a greater shot at success if we craft our environment | Not used as often as it should be due to restraint bias |
| Restraint bias | people’s tendency to overestimate their ability to resist temptation when it occurs, often as a result of the empathy-gap effect |
| Empathy-Gap Effect: | where people in a “cold” state (not hungry, thirsty, sexually aroused) underestimate the influence of a “hot” state (hungry, thirsty, aroused) on their future behavior |
| Requires honest reflection to overcome | EX: dont keep treats in the house Maybe dont even go down the aisle of where the treats you like are |
| (STEP 2) Realistic Mental Simulation (pursuing goals) | mental simulation More effective to simulate process of striving toward the goal Fantasy Realization Theory Mental contrasting: |
| Mental simulaton: | maging possible scenarios in one’s own mind; in goal setting research usually imagining oneself into future settings |
| More effective to simulate process of striving toward the goal than to just visualize outcome | First= visualize attaining your goals you get the burst of satisfaction you were hoping for Second= visualizing goal attainment does not help you prepare for obstacles along the way |
| Fantasy Realization Theory (Gabriele Oettingen) | theory posits that the best way to inspire behavior change is to combine positive fantasies about the future with identification of the potential obstacles |
| Mental contrasting: | combining positive/ future fantasies w/ a clear view of pontential obstacles that may arise |
| (STEP 3) Planning Ahead (pursuing goals) | Go one step further by combining the last two to form implementation intentions prepare for temptations by crafting environment visualize your journey towards your goal / the obstacles that may arise (IF/THEN statements) - implementation intentions |
| BOTH STEPS (for planning ahead) | explicitly state your response to temptations / challenges in the form of an IF/ THEN statement |
| Implementation intentions: | involving visualizing the journey toward a goal and the obstacles that might arise, and then explicitly stating a response to these obstacles in the form of an IF/THEN statement |
| Shared Goals | Some goals are inherently social - mimetic desire |
| Mimetic desire: | our tendency to adopt goals we see others that we admit pursuing - want what others have, want what other people want, care what others think |
| Goal Disengagement | intentionally releasing a previously held goal - May sound like accepting defeat but can be very positive / adaptive - giving up on certain goals may be the right thing for ones health |
| Goal reengagement | following goal disengagement, shifting gears to a new goal for continued benefits |
| Importance of Self Control | - delayed gratification - great marshmallow study - delay discounting |
| Self-control: | effort to regulate one’s own thoughts, feelings, behavior |
| Delayed gratification: | resisting immidate reward for a greater future benefit - putting off to the future pleasures you could, if you wished, enjoy in the present |
| Great Marshmallow Study (Walter Mischel) | children who delayed gratification (waited for 2nd marshmallow) tended to have better academic outcomes/ fewer behavioral problems |
| Delay discounting | tendency to perceive far-off rewards as less valuable than the same reward if you had it right now, reduced by an amount proportional to the distance in time |
| Self Control is a Limited Resource | self regulation ego depletion self control feels like work |
| Self regulation: | process of managing or controlling one’s own thoughts, feelings, and behavior - resisting temptation - inhibiting impulses |
| Ego depletion: | self-control draws upon a limited pool of mental resources/ so exercising self-control uses up these resources and is less effective over time |
| Rest & Replenishment | self-regulation/control capacity depletes with use, but also that—like a muscle—you can strengthen it with repeated application of effort over time |
| Replenishment | behaviors that restore self control - resting / laughing |
| Can Goal Setting itself make us happy? | - intrinsic goals - extrinsic goals |
| Intrinsic goals | predict higher levels of well-being / less distress Rewarding |
| Extrinsic goals | predict lower levels of well-being / more distress Relies on others’ opinions |
| Emotion & Goals | Discrepancies are motivating bc they impact our emotions Goals can be emotional states in themselves |
| Traditional psychology: | overemphasizes psychopathology / malfunction - Positive psychologists say= health means more than the absence of disease |
| Positive psychology: | focuses on positive phenomena / the meaning of life - mindfulness/ happy → focus on that help people who are suffering do better and help people who are doing good to be the best they can be |
| Happiness | generally experiencing one’s life as pleasant, fulfilling, satisfying |
| Happiness hard to define | happiness measured as a trait= subjective well-being |
| Hedonic well-being | state of subjective well-being characterized by the pursuit and experience of pleasure and the avoidance of pain |
| Eudonmic well-being | reach full potential arising from living a meaningful/ purposeful life |
| Subjective well-being: | refers to how people experience / evaluate their lives |
| Subjective well-being includes: | Life satisfaction (cognitive judgments) Positive affect (frequent positive emotions) Low negative affect (infrequent negative emotions) |
| 3 Primary Sources (Happiness) | 1. Individual set point 2. Intentional activity 3. Life circumstances |
| Individual Set Point (source of happiness) | genetics / personality disposition) - People return to a baseline level of happiness after life events (positive or negative) - Personality shapes happiness - Top down/ bottom up |
| Personality shapes happiness | happiness can shape personality / whatever personality you have is what you show in terms of happiness |
| Top down DEF | using prior knowledge, expectations, and context to interpret new information |
| Bottom up DEF | relies on sensory information and analysis of individual elements to build a perception |
| Intentional activity (source of happiness) | Nurturing relationships, engaging in meaningful activities/ practicing gratitude |
| Life Circumstances (source of happiness) | Includes income, relationships, health, job security, major life events Big changes often bring temporary happiness |
| Flow state: | mental state of deep absorptions / focus during an autotelic activity → unique mental statement of constant engagement |
| Autotelic activity: | something done for your own pleasure |
| Achieving Flow | 1. Focused concentration 2. control your actions 3. merging action/ awareness 4. time has passed faster than normal 5. loss of reflective self-consciousness 6. activity is intrinsically rewarding |
| Flow State Components | Flow= challenges / skills match (just right) Boredom= Skills are way too good → way too easy Anxiety= becomes too challenge for our skill set |
| How do you achieve flow? | Mindful non-judgmental approach to performance may be necessary for getting to that deep flow state |
| Flow model was adjusted by Delle Fave & Massimini | Flow experience intensifies as challenges / skills move beyond a person’s average levels |
| Personal variables | curiosity, persistence, low self-centeredness may be associated w/ the ability to reach the flow state |
| Autotelic personality: | person who generally enjoys life/ does things for their own sake |
| Fostering Flow | Finding/ shaping activities + environments Identifying personal characteristics / skills |
| Mindfulness | Flexible mind → open to new things Awareness → actions guided in the moment |
| Mindfulness helps w/ “generating novelty” | Overcoming the desire to reduce uncertainty in daily life Overriding a tendency to engage in automatic behavior |
| Benefits of Mindfulness | 1. improves mood/ mental health 2. reduced depressive / anxiety symptoms 3. may enhance multitasking ability / greater cognitive flexibility |
| Neurological effects of mindfulness | linked to better spatial abilities / possible increases neuroplasticity (brains ability to adapt / grow) |
| 2 Neurological pathways of mindfulness | 1. top down 2. bottom up |
| Top down (mindfulness) | Consciously reframe situations Cognitive reappraisal of situations to regulate emotions Common in new mindfulness learners |
| Bottom up (mindfulness) | Responses can become more automatic Direct modulation of emotional responses without reappraisal More common in long-term use |
| Value of Gratitude Practices | Regular gratitude boosts: Mental health Resilience to stress Positive relationships |
| Leanred helplessness connects to depression | If you feel depressed, you believe you are helpless or hopeless → If you believe you are helpless or hopeless, you are more likely to become depressed |
| 3 MAIN FEATURES of ATTACHMENT | Proximity seeking → want to be close to attachment figure Safe haven → when something goes wrong / that is my safe haven (who I come back to) Secure base → safe space/ gives kid opportunity to explore |
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