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ch4-5 flashcards
i hate psych i hate psych i hate psych i hate psych i hate psych i hate psych
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| scientific discipline | branch of scientific knowledge. |
| psychology as a scientific discipline | -the main aim of psych as a scientific discipline is to study human mental processes and behaviour. |
| is the brain vs. heart debate a historical approach? | yes |
| what was brain vs. heart debate? | -it was a historical debate as to whether the heart or the brain is responsible for mental processes, such as thoughts, emotions and behaviours. |
| two opposing sides of the brain vs. heart debate | -heart hypothesis -brain hypothesis |
| heart hypothesis in the brain vs. heart debate | -that the heart was the source of all mental processes such as thoughts, emotions and behaviours, and the brain had no purpose at all. |
| who believed the heart hypothesis in the brain vs. heart debate? | -early philosophers and ancient egyptians. |
| brain hypothesis in the brain vs. heart debate | -that the braion is the source of all our mental processes, such as thoughts, emotions and behaviours. |
| who believed the brain hypothesis in the brain vs. heart debate? | -greek philosophers -it is the view that is accepted currently |
| was the mind-body problem a historical approach? | yes |
| what was the mind-body problem? | -it was the complex philosophical question as to whether the mind is part of the body or if the mind is a seperate entity from the brain and the body. |
| two opposing sides of the mind-body problem | -monsim -dualism |
| monism in the mind-body problem | -the human mind and body are together as a singular, complete entity. |
| dualism in the mind-body problem | -the belief that the human mind and body are seperate and distinguishable from each other. |
| the mind | -refers to an individuals thoughts, consciousness and mental processes. eg. non-physical thoughts/mental processes- cant directly be touched. |
| the body | -the structure of an individual's brain and the neurons it is made up of. eg. physical things that can be directy observed. |
| pseudoscience | -something consisting of practices that claimm to be both factual and scientific, but don't follow the scientific mentod -they're 'fake' sciences. |
| is phrenology a historical approach? | yes |
| what is phrenology? | -the study of the shape and size of the human skull to determine personality and mental functioning. |
| who was phrenology developed by and when? | -the german physcian franz joseph gall in 1976. |
| what was franaz joseph gall's view? | -his view was that differnt mental functions are in different parts of the brain. -we now know this as localisation of function in the brain. |
| when was phrenology popular? | -19th century |
| gall's three principles (1) | -a person's faculties (intelectual abilities and personality traits depend of the organisation of their brain. |
| gall's three principles (2) | -the brain is made up of many 'organs'. -each is responsible for a differnent mental faculty (intelectual abilities and personality traits). -the more developed a faculty, the larger that part of the brain would be. |
| gall's three principles (3) | -the external form of the skull reflects the internal form of the brain. -hence the analysis of the skull can be used to diagnose the faculties (intelectual abilities and personality traits) of an individual. |
| old approaches to understanding the brain | -the brain vs. heart debate -the mind body problem -phrenology |
| middle not really that old approaches to understanding the brain | -first brain experiments |
| brain ablation experiments | -experiments that involved the surgical removal of brain tissue in animals (usually rabbits and/or pigeons) followed by the observation of changes in the animal's behaviour |
| brain ablation studies (textbook definition) | -the surgical removal, destruction, or cutting of a region of brain tissue. |
| brain lesioning studies (texbook definiton) | -the practice of studying the effects of induced and/or existing damage to an area of the brain. |
| process of brain ablation experiment | 1. intact animal brain 2. ablation process 3. observations 4. make inferences |
| similarity of brain ablation to phrenology | -flourens theory of localisation and phrenology both suggest that certain areas of the brain are responsible for specific functions. |
| who created the brain ablation studies? | -marie jean pierrie flourens -a french physicial famous for various significant discoveries like cerebral localisation. |
| difference of brain ablation to phrenology | -phrenologists theorised the difference of funtion of different parts of the brain. -while flourens used scientific research through experimental ablation to come to this conclusion |
| what did brain ablation provide evidence for? | -that different parts of the brain were responsible for different functions. -evidence for flourens theory of localisation |
| flourens theory of localisation | -different cerebral territories serve different functions. |
| how the findings of flouren's research failed to support the theory of phrenology? | -flourens research led to the general concept that different regions of the brain interacted and influenced each other. -in contrast, phrenology proposed that each mind organ was completely independent in its use. |
| brain lesioning studies | -brain lesioning studies involved the damage of brain tissue in animals (usually pigeons and/or rabbits), followed by the observation of changes in the animal's behaviour. |
| how was the damage created for brain lesioning studies? | -through surgery or may have occured naturally as a result of an accident or illness. -if it occured naturally, the study can be done on humans as well. |
| early brain lesioning studies | -often revolved around induced damage (purposely through surgery). |
| later brain lesioning studies | -research of the effects of existing damage (occured naturally due to injury or other things. |
| what did brain lesioning provide evidence for? | -that different parts of the brain were responsible for different functions. |
| process of brain lesioning experiment | 1. animal or human brain 2. damage 3. observations 4. make inferences |
| who conducted split-brain research and on what? | -conducted by Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga on patients who had a severed corpus callosum, and therefore, their left and right cerebral hesmispheres had been seperated. |
| what did the split-brain research find? | -that the brain is splut up into two symmetrical halves in the cerebrum of the brain. -called cerebral hemispheres |
| what is cerebral hemispheres? | -the symmetrical halves of the cerebrum in the brain. |
| what are the two cerebral hemispheres? | -left hemipshere -right hemisphere |
| what connects the two cerebral hemispheres? | -corpus callosum |
| corpus callosum | -bundle of nerve fibres that connects the left and right brain hemispheres. |
| what does the corpus callosum do? | -it allows the right hemisphere to communicate with the left and send messages to it. |
| who was the split-brain procedure usually done on? | -on patients with epilepsy to prevent the seizures from spreading from one side of the brain to the other. |
| what did the split-brain experiments provide evidence for? | -hemispheric specialisation |
| hemispheric specialisation | -the difference in functioning between the left and right hemispheres when performing a specific task or behaviour. -that each hemisphere has specific roles. |
| procedure of the split brain research (2 steps bc word limit) | 1. participants were asked to look at a dot in the centre of their screen. 2. images/words were flashed to either the left or right visual field. |
| procedure of the split brain research (3rd step bc word limit) | 3. participants were asked to indicate what they had seen by either saying it or selecting with one hand from a range of objects. |
| scientific findings of split brain research (one sentence) | -the information was processed contralaterally by the participants with a severed corpus callosum. |
| contralateral (textbook definition) | relating to the oppsoite sides of the body |
| scientific findings of split brain research (images presented on participants right visual field) | -info presented on the participants' right visual field were sent to their left hemisphere: the patient could: -state what they had seen -could indivate wha they had seen by drawing it or selecting it with their right hand only. |
| scientific findings of split brain research (images presented on participants left visual field) | -images presented to the participants' left visual field were sent to their right hemisphere: the patient: -could not say what they had seen. -could indicate what they had seen by drawing it or selecting it with their left hand only. |
| conclusions from split brain research (left brain is responsible for) | -language -voluntary movement of the right side of the body |
| conclusions from split brain research (right brain is responsible for) | -voluntary movement of the left side of the body. |
| limitations of the split brain research | -small sample size due to the researchers only being able to study participants who had already undergone split-brain surgery. -the presence of individual participant differences due to non-random sampling. |
| present day approaches to understanding psychology | neuroimaging techniques |
| neuroimaging techniques | -the procedueres and devices that are used to take scans or images of the brain to provide information about the brain's structure, function and activities. |
| neuroimaging techniques (textbook definition) | -a range of techniques is used to capture images of the brain’s structure, function, and activities. |
| neuroimaging (textbook definition) | -a range of techniques that are used to capture images of the brain’s structure, function, and activities. |
| what can neuroimaging techniques be used for? | - for research purposes and/or to provide more information regarding brain injury or damage, including location and severity. |
| two categories of neuroimaging techniques | -strucural -functional |
| structural techniques | -provides information on what the brain looks like through images/scans. |
| funtional techniques | -provides information on brain activity through videos/images that shows how the brain changes, not just a snapshot. |
| computerised tomography (CT scan) -what does it provide? | -to provide two- and three-dimensional images of an individuals brain strucures. |
| non-invasive | -doesn't involve touching the brain. |
| computerised tomography (CT scan) -is it structural or functional | structural |
| computerised tomography (CT scan) -when was it developed? | 1970s |
| computerised tomography (CT scan) -process (step 1&2 bc word limit) | 1. a dye or contrast being ingested or injected into the bloodstream of a patient. 2. the patient then lies on a bed that slides into a donut-shaped scanner. |
| computerised tomography (CT scan) -process (step 3&4 bc word limit) | 3. a series of X-ray images are taken as the tube spirals around the individual. 4. the images produced are either two or three-dimensional, and they provide information about the structures of the brain. |
| computerised tomography (CT scan) -textbook definition | A neuroimaging technique that involves taking continuous two-dimensional x-ray images of a person’s brain or body to provide both two- and three-dimensional images. |
| magentic resonance imaging (MRI scan) -what does it provide? | -to provide two- and three-dimensional images of an individuals brain strucures. |
| magentic resonance imaging (MRI scan) -structural or functional | structural |
| computerised tomography (CT scan) -non-invasive or invasive | non-invasive |
| magentic resonance imaging (MRI scan) -non-invasive or invasive | non-invasive |
| magentic resonance imaging (MRI scan) -when was it developed? | 1907s |
| magentic resonance imaging (MRI scan) -process (step 1&2 bc word limit) | 1. the patient lies on a bed that slides into a chamber device made up of large, tube-shaped. 2. atoms (eg, hydrogen) in the water molecules in a person’s brain are realigned by the magnets, which produce signals that can be turned into images. |
| magentic resonance imaging (MRI scan) -process (step 3&4 bc word limit) | 3. looking at what's occurring in the water molecules in the brain and creating images from that. 4. the images procused are either two or three-dimensional, and they provide information about the structures of the brain. |
| magentic resonance imaging (MRI scan) -textbook definition | -a neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic and radio fields to take two- and three-dimensional images of the brain. |
| positrom emission tomography (PET scan) -what does it provide? | -provides information about what the brain is doing by finding the most active regions when we are doing certain tasks. |
| positrom emission tomography (PET scan) -functional or structural | functional |
| positrom emission tomography (PET scan) -invasive or non-invasive | non-invasive |
| positrom emission tomography (PET scan) -when was it developed? | 1970s |
| positrom emission tomography (PET scan) -process (step 1&2 bc word limit) | 1. involves injecting a person with a radioactive glucose solution, which enters the brain via the bloodstream. 2. the patient then lies on a bed that slides into a chamber and is asked to perform certain tasks. |
| positrom emission tomography (PET scan) -process (step 3&4 bc word limit) | 3. the PET scanner takes a series of images by registering the emissions released by the radioactive substance. 4. the more active a region is, the more glucose it will use, resulting in higher emissions. |
| positrom emission tomography (PET scan) -textbook definition | -a neuroimaging technique that uses a scanning device to take coloured images of the brain, showing its functional activity by tracing the levels of a radioactive substance in the brain. |
| functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI scan) -what it provides | -two and three-dimensional images showing different levels of brain activity. -structure as well as activity of the brain. |
| functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI scan) -structural or functional | functional |
| functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI scan) -invasive or non-invasive | non-invasive |
| functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI scan) -when was it developed? | 1990s |
| functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI scan) -process (step 1&2 bc word limit) | 1. similarly, fMRI uses magnetic and radio fields. 2. the main difference is that fMRI is based on the idea that the more active a region of the brain is, the more oxygen it will use. |
| functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI scan) -process (step 3 bc word limit) | 3. therefore, fMRI scans measure the blood flow to an area of the brain during physical or intellectual tasks. |
| the brain | -the brain is a complex organ within the skull |
| what does the brain do? | -it controls and coordinates mental processes and behaviour and regulates the activity of the body. |
| when does the brain start developing? | -during gestation - the period of time between conception and birth. |
| where is the brainstem | -the oldest part of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells and enters the skull. |
| what does the brainstem do? | -it is responsible for automatic survival functions. |
| hindbrain location | -at the base of the brain near the spinal cord. |
| key structures of the hindbrain | -pons -medulla -cerebellum -a part of the brain stem |
| pons location | -the middle portion of the brainstem |
| what is in the brainstem? | -medulla -pons -reticular formation |
| pons function | -coordinates face and eye movements, facial sensations, hearing and balance -unconscious processes. eg. your sleep-wake cycle and breathing -relays info from the higher brain areas like motor commands to cerebellum -taste, touch, and communicate. |
| medulla location | -bottom part of the brainstem. |
| medulla function | -regulates brething, heartbeat, blood pressure and swallowing (autonomic activities) |
| cerebellum location | -just above the brain stem and tucked underneath the cerebral cortex towards the back of the brain. |
| cerebellum function | -coordinates movement - ensuring that motor movements are fluid and smooth. -controls posture, balance and fine motor movement -voluntary movements including 'procedures' or 'sequences.' - consolidating procedural memories -involved in motor learning |
| motor skill | a function that involves specific movements of the body's muscles to perform a certain task. |
| procedural memories | -the process of retrieving information necessary to perform learned skills eg. tying shoelaces, riding a bike |
| what is the hindbrain responsible for? | -regulation of the sleep-wake cycle -regulation of autonomic functions such as breathing, heart rate, digestion -coordination of muscle movement |
| midbrain location | -centre of the brain between the hindbrain and forebrain -also part of the brainstem |
| midbrain key structures | -reticular formation -part of the brainstem |
| reticular formation | -the reticular formation nuclei are found deep within the brainstem, along its length. |
| reticular formation parts | -it has a key network of pathways called the reticular activating system (RAS) |
| reticular activating system (RAS) role | -key role in filtering and directing sensory information. -it helps regulate alertness and arousal based on external and internal cues. |
| reticular activating system (RAS) function | 1. sensory organs collect large amounts of information from the environment. -the brain can't process all of it at once. 2. the RAS filters out unimportant information. 3. the RAS directs important messages to different brain areas. |
| midbrain responsibilities | -relays messages between hindbrain and forebrain -filters/directs sensory info -regulates sleep, arousal, alertness -coordinates eye movements -processes sights, sounds, touch |
| forebrain location | -biggest most prominent part of the brain -located at the top |
| forebrain key structures | -cerebrum -thalamus -hypothalamus |
| cerebrum location | -largest part of your brain. located at the front and top of your skull. |
| cerebrum responsibilities | -conscious thoughts actions -controls voluntary movement, speech, intellignece, and emotions -also interprets the senses of vision, hearing and touch -not responsible for procedural or sequenced voluntary movements |
| parts of cerebrum | -two hemispheres -lobes of the brain -cerebral cortex |
| thalamus location | -near the center of the brain. |
| thalamus responsibilities | -processing sensory information as well as relay it, excluding olfactory info (smells detected by the nose). -important role in attention. |
| thalamus function | -filters, processes and relays sensory info, excluding olfactory information. -analyses sensory info 1. the most important and relavent info is extracted 2. filtered info is then relayed by it to various higher brain areas for further processing |
| hypothalamus location | -deep inside the brain. |
| hypothalamus responsibilities | -keeping the body in a stable state called homeostasis. |
| hypothalamus function | -regulating internal processing like --hormone levels --hunger --thirst --body temp |
| forebrain responsibilities | -complex mental processes like decision-making, problem-solving, proccessing sensory info, initiating voluntary movement. -attention and further filtering sensory info -maintaining homeostasis |
| cerebral cortex (textbook definition) | -outermost layer of the cerebrum that covers the brain. |
| hindbrain (textbook definiton) | -a region at the base of the brain, located around and including the dome of the brainstem |
| midbrain (textbook definiton) | -a region at the centre of the brain between the hindbrain and the forebrain, and is part of the brain stem |
| forebrain (textbook definition) | -a large and prominent brain region is located at the top and front of the brain. |
| cerebral cortex | -it is the intricate fabric of the interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres. -it is the body’s ultimate control and information processing center |
| how thick is the cerebral cortex? | -only about 1-3mm thick |
| how many of the brains neurons does it contain? | -3/4 of the brains neurons. |
| convolutions | -the little grooves and fissures that are around the brain -these convolutions increase the surface area of the cerebral cortex while still ensuring that it fits in the skull. |
| how many of the cerebral cortex's neurons are in the hidden convoluted areas? | -1/3 of the neurons are in the convoluted areas. |
| cerebral cortex responsibilities | information processing such as: -perception -learning -memory -higher-order thinking processes (like problem-solving and planning) -language -regulation of emotions and also planning and control of voluntary bodily movements |
| 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex | -frontal lobe -parietal lobe -occipital lobe -temporal lobe |
| frontal lobe location | -largest of the four lobes -located in the upper forwards half of each hemisphere |
| frontal lobe parts | -comprised of both motor and association areas -no sensory areas -broca's area |
| what is the association area of the frontal lobe? | prefrontal cortex |
| prefrontal cortex | -planning -judgement -problem-solving -aspects of personality -regulation of emotions -production of fluent and articulate speech |
| what part is responsible of fluent and articulate speech? | broca's area |
| broca's area location | -located in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere. |
| broca's area responsibilities | -production of articulate speech (clear and fluent) -coordination of the muscles required for speech production. |
| what are the motor areas of the frontal cortex? | -premotor cortex -primary motor cortex (PMC) |
| prefrontal cortex location | -front of the frontal lobe |
| premotor cortex location | -inbetween each prefrontal cortex and primary motor cortex. |
| primary motor cortex location | -at the back of each frontal lobe. |
| premotor cortex responsibilities | -planning and organising movements and actions. |
| primary motor cortex responsibilities | -resonsible for the movement of skeletal muscles of the body. |
| how are the motor areas organised in the primary motor cortex? | -the areas at the top of the body are represented at the lower parts of the PMC and vice versa. -areas of the body that are capable of precise movement occupy a llarger proportion of the PMC. |
| how is the movement of the primary motor cortex organised? | contralateral organisation -the left PMC is responsible for the movement of the right-hand side of the body and vice versa. |
| parietal lobe location | -occupues the upper back half of each hemisphere, behind the frontal lobe. |
| parietal lobe parts | -comprised of both sensory and association areas -no motor areas |
| sensory areas in the parietal lobe | primary somatosensory cortex |
| association areas in the parietal lobe | -left over part of the parietal lobe not including the PSC. |
| primary somatosensory cortex (PSC) location | -at the front of each parietal lobe |
| primary somatosensory cortex (PSC) function | receives and processes sensations such as: -touch -smell -pressure -temperature -pain |
| spatial reasoning | -determining where an object is located in space. |
| how is the primary somatosensory cortex (PSC) sensing organised? | contralateral organisation -the left PSC is responsible for receiving and processing information from the right-hand side of the body and vise versa |
| association area of the parietal lobe function | -sensing the position of our body in space -spatial reasoning -perception of 3d objects. |
| occipital lobe location | -occupies the lower back of each hemisphere. |
| occipital lobe parts | -has both sensory and association areas |
| association area of occipital lobe location | -at the front of each occipital lobe |
| association area of occipital lobe function | -after the visual cortex revieces and processes visual information the association areas organise these into more complex forms to enable interpretation (perception). |
| sensory area of occipital lobe | primary visual cortex (PVC) |
| primary visual cortex (PVC) location | -at the back of each occipital lobe |
| primary visual cortex (PVC) function | -recieves and processes visual information - sends to association area to percieve what is seen |
| how the information is organised in the occipital lobe | contralateral organisation: -information from the left visual field is processed in the right occipital lobe and vice versa. -information from the centre of the visual field is processed in both occipital lobes. |
| temporal lobe location | -at the sides of each cerebral hemisphere. |
| temporal lobe parts | -has both sensory and association areas -wernicke's area |
| temporal lobe association area location | -at the bottom of the temporal lobe -covers most of the area |
| temporal lobe association area function | important role in memory, in particular: -object and facial recognition -appropriate emotional responses -memories of facts and personal experiences |
| temporal lobe sensory area | primary auditory cortex (PAC) |
| primary auditory cortex (PAC) location | -covers a small area under the wernicke's area and the association area of both temporal lobes. |
| primary auditory cortex (PAC) function | -revieves and processes auditory information |
| how do different parts of the PAC of the temporal lobe process different features of sound? | -verbal words are processed in the left hemisphere -non-verbal music is processed in the right hemisphere |
| wernicke's area location | -covers a small amount of area at the top of the left temporal lobe |
| wernicke's area function | -responsible for language comprehension and the production of meaningful coherent speech. |
| how do the wernicke's area and PAC interact? | -when you hear a word, the PAC of the left temporal lobe processes the sensation -but, you cannot understand the word until it has been processed by the wernicke's area. |
| lobes (textbook defintion) | -the four distinct regions of the cerebral cortex. |
| association areas (textbook definition) | -parts of the cerebral cortex that integrate information from both sensory and motor areas. |
| frontal lobe (textbook definition) | -the largest and front-most lobe of the cerebral cortex that is composed of motor and association areas. |
| primary motor cortex (textbook definition) | -located at the rear of each frontal lobe responsible for the movement of skeletal muscles of the body. |
| parietal lobe (textbook definition) | -the lobe of the cerebral cortex, located behind the frontal love, and is composed of sensory and association areas |
| primary somatosensory cortex (textbook definition) | -situated at the front of each parietal lobe. It receives and processes sensations such as touch, pressure, temperature and pain from the body. |
| occipital lobe (textbook definition) | -the rearmost love of the cerebral cortex, located behind the parietal love, and is composed of sensory and association areas. |
| primary visual cortex (textbook definition) | -receives and processes visual information. |
| temporal lobe (textbook definition) | -the lowest lobe of the cerebral cortex, located beneath the parietal lobe and is composed of sensory and association areas. |
| primary auditory cortex (textbook definition) | -receives and processes auditory information. Verbal words are processed in the left and non-verbal music is processed in the right hemisphere. |
| nervous system | -a complex physiological structure composed of billions of interconnected neurons. |
| neurons | -are an individual nerve cell that receives, transmit and process information. |
| parts of a neuron (in order of how info moves through them) | -dendrites -soma (also known as cell body) -nucleus -axon -myelin sheath -nodes of ranvier -axon terminals -terminal buttons -synaptic gap |
| dendrites description (location) | -the structures extending from the left side of the neuron that look a little bit like tree branches. |
| dendrites function (2 points) | 1. receive messages (information from the other neurons or sensory receptors via synapses (synaptic gaps). 2. deliver this to the cell body/soma. |
| soma (cell body) description (location) | -the area around the nucleus where the dendrites and axon termical are connected to. -on left side of a neuron |
| soma (cell body) function | 1. combines and integrates information recieved from the denrites. 2. sends this information to the axon. |
| nucleus description (location) | -inside the soma (cell body). |
| nucleus function | -controls everthing -control centre |
| axon description (location) | -one long cable that snakes away from the main part of the cell. |
| axon function | 1. carries information away from the soma towards the axon terminals or other neurons 2. the electrical impulse is referred to as an ‘action potential’ |
| action potential | - the things that travels the length of the axon and causes release of neurotransmitter into the synapse. |
| myelin sheath description (location) | a lineup of individual sections of a fatty substance, each separated from the next by a tiny gap around the axon. |
| myelin sheath function | 1. coats and helps insulate/protect the axon 2. ncreases the speed of transmission. |
| nodes of ranvier description (location) | -the gaps between the myelin sheath. |
| nodes of ranvier function | 1. this assists the action potential to jump from node to node. |
| axon terminals description (location) | -branches at the end of the axon. |
| axon termincals function | 1. to link with the dendrites of other neurons 2. transmit messages to other cells via use of neurotransmitters at synapses |
| terminal buttons description (location) | -small knobs at the end of an axon terminal. |
| terminal buttons function | 1. release neurotransmitters 2. chemical message is sent to other neurons across the synaptic gap (synapse)/(synaptic cleft). |
| synaptic gap (synapse) description (location) | -small gaps between neurons |
| synaptic gap (synapse) function | -allows a neuron to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron or a target effector cell. |
| main function of nervous system | -the nervous system is a communication system that allows the brain to obtain information about what is going on inside and outside of the body and respond appropriately. |
| three main functions of nervous system | -recieve information -process information -respond to information |
| example - sound reception in nervous system | -the vibrating air molecules are received at the ear and sent to the brain via the auditory nerve. |
| example - sound processing in nervous system | -the brain processes the auditory information and interprets the sound as your mobile phone rings |
| example - sound responding in nervous system | -the brain sends messages along the pathways to activate muscles to pick up the phone to check who is calling and speak. |
| parts of nervous system description | -the nervous system is a hierarchical structure (organisational structure where people or things are arranged in levels) that can be divided into two divisions. |
| two devisions of nervous system | -central nervous system (CNS) -peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
| central nervous system parts | -brain -spinal cord |
| brain function in CNS | -a network of cells that pays a vital role in processing information from the body’s external environments and in directing responses. |
| spinal cord description | -made up of nerve fibres stretching from the base of the brain to the lower back which connect to the rest of the body via its connection to the peripheral nervous system (PNS). |
| spinal cord function in CNS | -recieves sensory info from body (via PNS) and sends to the brain -recieves motor info from brain and sends to relavent parts of body (via pns) to control muscles, glands and internal organs so appropriate action can be taken. |
| peripheral nervous system description | -consists of all of the nerves outside of the central nervous system (CNS). |
| peripheral nervous system function | -to carry sensory info from the rest of the body to the cns. -to carry motor info from cns to rest of the body. |
| two subdivisions of pns | -somatic nervous system -autonomic nervous system |
| somatic nervous system function | -the system of nerves that carries messages to and from the sense organs and skeletal muscles (Skeletal muscles enable humans to move and perform daily activities). |
| somatic nervous system sensory role | -consists of receiving sensory information from sensory receptors located throughout the body and transmitting it inwards to the spinal cord. |
| somatic nervous system motor function | -it receives motor messages from the CNS and transports them to skeletal muscles so our responses to stimuli are appropriate. |
| autonomic nervous system description | -contains nerves that are connected to the CNS and the involuntary muscles that control the activity level of our internal organs and glands. |
| autonomic nervous system function | -by relaying messages between the CNS and our internal systems, the ANS controls the body’s involuntary internal activities that are essential for survival. |
| autonomic nervous system funtioning examples | -these activities include heart rate, digestion, kidney function, liver function and perspiration levels. |
| autonomic nervous system two sub divisions | -sympathetic nervous system -parasympathetic nervous system |
| what happens when sympathetic nervous system is stimulated? | -when the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated, it arouses or energises the body and prepares it for emergency action. |
| how does the sympathetic nervous system prepare us for emergency action? | -it does this by increasing the activity level of some bodily systems while others are slowed down. |
| in the sympathetic nervous system how are physiological changes in response to percieved threats begun? | 1. when a motor message is sent to the adrenal glands. 2. this stimulates them to release the stress hormone, adrenaline into our bloodstream. |
| what does the sympathetic nervous system do by making physiological changes and regulating internal activity? | -by initiating these changes and regulating internal activity, the sympathetic nervous system energises us and physically prepares us for action. (Fight, flight, freeze or fawn response) |
| fight instinct positive | -this response helps you to focus and gives your muscles oxygen so that they can fight the threat. |
| fight instinct negative | -this response might make you overly aggressive in situations that aren’t that threatening. |
| flight instinct positive | -when you face something that could harm you, this instinct helps to alert you that leaving might keep you unharmed. |
| flight instinct negative | -many people feel this instinct when presented with a stimulus that likely won't harm them. |
| what activates the flight or fright response? | -sympathetic nervous system |
| freeze response | -it gives time to devide to fight or run away |
| what activates the freeze response | parasympathetic nervous system |
| examples of bodily changes with the sympathetic nervous system | -heart rate increase (to pump blood faster) -breathing quickens (to get more oxygen) -mouth becomes dry (salivary glands gets slowed) -blood flow to skeletal muscles increases -pupils dialate to see better |
| parasympathetic nervous system function | -once the need for high arousal has passed, the parasympathetic nervous system reverses the effects of the sympathetic nervous system. |
| what does the reversal of the body in the parasympathetic nervous system do? | - returns the body to its normal level of arousal or a more relaxed state when the period of high emotion or need for physical activity has passed. |
| what is a major role of the parasympathetic nervous system? | -the parasympathetic nervous system plays a major role in keeping the body in a state of well-being or homeostasis. |
| why does it take longer to calm down that to become aroused? | -this is because the parasympathetic nervous system response is slower than that of our sympathetic nervous system. |
| neuroplasticity (textbook definition) | -the ability of the brain to change in response to experience or environmental stimulation. |
| developmental plasticity (textbook definition) | -changes in the brain that occur in response to aging and maturation. |
| synaptogenesis (textbook definition) | -the formation of synapses between neurons as axon terminals and dendrites grow. |
| synaptic pruning (textbook definition) | -the elimination of underused synapses. |
| myelination (textbook definition | -the formation and development of myelin around the axon of neurons. |
| sprouting (textbook definition) | -a neuron’s ability to develop new branches on the dendrites or axons. |
| rerouting (textbook definition) | -a neuron's ability to form a new connection with another undamaged neuron. |
| adaptive plasticity (textbook definition) | -the brain’s ability to restore adequate neural functioning over time after an injury. |
| aquired brain injury (textbook definition) | -refers to all types of brain injury that occur after birth. |
| traumatic brain injury (textbook definition | -damage to the brain that is caused by an external force. |
| non-traumatic brain injury (textbook definition) | -damage to the brain that is caused by internal factors. |
| abi impact on biological functioning (textbook definition) | -changes to the function of organs and neurons. |
| abi impact on psychological functioning (textbook definition) | -changes to a person’s thoughts, feelings and behaviour. |
| abi impact on social functioning (textbook definition) | -changes to a person’s interpersonal skills and interactions with other people. |
| neurological disorders (textbook definition) | -diseases characterised by any damage to or malfuctioning of the nervous system. |
| dopamine (textbook definition) | -a neurotransmitter that is responsible for the coordination of voluntary movement and the experience of pleasure and pain. |
| parkinson's disease (textbook definition) | -a progressive disease of the nervous system characterised by both motor and non-motor symptoms. |
| stem cell therapy (textbook definition) | -to use stem cells to treat or prevent a disease or condition. |
| concussion (textbook definition) | -a mild traumatic brain injury that temporarily disrupts brain function. |
| post-mortem examination (textbook definition) | -an assessment of a dead body that occurs to determine the cause of death. |
| nuerofibrillary tangles (textbook definition) | -an accumulation of the protein tau that forms insoluble tangles within neurons, which then inhibit the transportation of essential substances and eventually kill the neuron entirely. |
| chronic traumatic encephalopathy (textbook definition) | -a progressive and fatal brain disease associated with repeated exposure to mild traumatic brain injuries such as concussions. |
| what is synaptogenesis? | -the formation of synapses between neurons. |
| what is synaptic pruning? | -the elimination of unerused synapses |
| what is myelination? | -the formation of the fatty layer around the axon. |
| why does synaptogenesis occur? | -to ensure neuronal connections are being made so that skills can be learnt and developed |
| three key brain changes in response to experience (developmental plasticity) | -synaptogenesis -synaptic pruning -myelination |
| what is neuroplasticity? | -the ability of the brain to change its structure or function in response to experience or environmental stimulation. |
| two types of neuroplasticity | -adaptive plasticity -developmental plasticity |
| what is developmental plasticity | -changes in the brain that occur in response to aging and maturation. -most prominent during infancy and adolescence - decreases with age |
| why is developmental plasticity more prevalent in early years of life? | -in the first years of life, children are exposed to more new information than at any other time in their lives. During that time, the brain is forming new connections or synapses every second. |
| brain changes in response to brain trauma (adaptive plasticity) | more focused on repairing -sprouting -rerouting |
| adaptive plasticity | -key role in recovery from brain trauma to restore adequate neural functioning over time after an injury. -its also involved when the brain changes as a result of experience and learning. |
| when does adaptive plasticity occur? | -throughout lifetime but declines as you get older because of the higher efficiency of developmental plasticity in younger years. |
| what is sprouting? | -a neurons ability to develop new branches on the dendrites or axons. |
| when does synaptogenesis occur? | -when axon terminals and dendrites grow -more common when younger |
| why does synaptic pruning occur? | -to get rid of unnecessary neural connections or refine existing ones. |
| when does synaptic pruning occur? | -happens when certain neural connections aren't used often and ends up having no reason to keep the synapse. -more prevalent when younger |
| why does myelination occur? | -to form a protective layer and insulate developing neurons allowing better communication. -required for diff types of learning. |
| when does myelination occur? | -largly in infancy as neurons are first muelinated, and tehn further myelination occurs in adolescence. |
| why does sprouting occur? | -to facillitate new connections to be formed after being lost. |
| when does sprouting occur? | -when connections between neurons have been lost. |
| what is rerouting? | -a neurons ability to form a new connection with another undamaged neuron. |
| why does rerouting occur? | -it enables recovery from damage to brain neurons so that proper functioning is still there. |
| when does rerouting occur? | -when one of two neurons gets damaged, the other undamaged neuron finds a new connection with an undamaged neuron. |
| what does maintaining and maximising brain functioning refer to? | -being able to increase efficiency, maximising how it’s doing its normal functioning of processing information, forming memories and learning new things |
| ways to maintain and maximise brain functioning | -mental stimulation -diet -physical activity -social support |
| what is mental stimulation in maintaining and maximising brain functioning? | -using the neural pathways in our brain and therefore enhancing brain functioning by strengthening those neural pathways and making sure they are being maintained. |
| examples of mental stimulation | -things like doing crossword puzzles -playing a musical instrument |
| what is diet in maintaining and maximising brain functioning? | -associated with improvements in memory and decreasing the risk of cognitive decline, including dementia. -having a healthy and balanced diet |
| what is physical activity in maintaining and maximising brain functioning? | -associated with improvements in memory and decreasing the risk of cognitive decline, including dementia. |
| diet examples | -having a healthy and balanced diet |
| physical activity examples | -running a marathon -going for a walk -doing strength training |
| what is social support in maintaining and maximising brain functioning? | -social isolation is linked to cognitive decline, memory issues, and higher dementia risk -high social support may help maintain or improve brain function -however it is not causal |
| acquired brain injury (ABI) | -if an individual experiences a brain injury AFTER BIRTH they are said to have an acquired brain injury (ABI) |
| two types of ABI | -traumatic -non traumatic |
| traumatic ABI | -damage to the brain that is caused by an external force. |
| non-traumatic ABI | -damage to the brain caused by internal factors. |
| examples of how you can get traumatic ABI | -sports injuries -falls -assults |
| examples of how you can get non-traumatic ABI | -stroke -aneurysm -tumour -substance abuse -hypoxia (not getting enough oxygen to the brain) |
| the impact of acquired brain injury on functioning | -depends on the region of the brain that is imapcted in the injury eg. if the occipital lobe was injured then someone would have trouble with their vision. |
| how can the impact oof ABI on functioning be divided? | biopsychosocial model |
| biological impact from ABI examples | -seizures -movement impairments -olfaction impairment |
| biological impact from ABI - how do seizures occur? | -seizures can occur as a result of scars left by brain injury that produce a sudden electrical disturbance in the brain. |
| biological impact from ABI - when do seizures occur | -these disturbances can occur immediately after a brain injury or even years later |
| biological impact from ABI - how do movement impairments occur? | -injury to any part of the brain can result in the loss of movement in different areas of the body. -refered to as 'paralysis' - it occurs bc the brain is unable to send adequate motor neural messages to the body's skeletal muscles to initiate movement. |
| biological impact from ABI - olfactory impairments | -for olfactory funtion to occur, non-obstructed nasal airway and unharmed neuronal pathways are needed. -therefore, any damage to neuronal pathways involved in the olfactory system leads to smell impairment. |
| biological impact from ABI - olfactory impairments examples | -temporary loss of smell -permanent loss of smell -loss of some smells -increased sensitivity to certain smells. |
| psychological impact from ABI | -changes to a person's thoughts, feelings and behaviour |
| biological impact from ABI | -changes to the function of organs and neurons. |
| psychological impact from ABI examples | -memory loss -personality changes -increased susceptibility to mental health disorders. |
| psychological impact from ABI - memory loss | -memory is largly controlled by brain areas, such as the hippocampus. -therefore, if these brain areas are damaged, impairments in memory can occur |
| psychological impact from ABI - memory loss examples | -short-term memory loss -long-term memory loss -complete amnesia |
| psychological impact from ABI - personality changes | -following brain injury, alterations in an individual's emotional and behavioural regulation can occur, producing personality changes. |
| psychological impact from ABI - personality changes examples | -impulsivity -irritability -emotional instability |
| psychological impact from ABI - increased susceptibility to mental health disorders | -mental health disorders can be a result of dysfunction in certain areas of the brain. -therefore, brain injury can induce or exacerbate mental health disorders. |
| psychological impact from ABI - increased susceptibility to mental health disorders examples | -mood disorders -anxiety disorders -substance abuse |
| social impact from ABI | -changes to a person's interpersonal skills and interactions with other people. |
| social impact from ABI examples | -job productivity -social support -antisocial behaviour |
| social impact from ABI - job productivity | -having mild traumatic brain injury has shown to result in increased unemployment rates, work limitations, and productivity loss in the long-term. |
| social impact from ABI - job productivity impacts examples | -reduced concentration -reduced physical mobility -increased fatigue |
| social impact from ABI - why they might need social support | -changes in social relationships following an ABI can affect a person's social functioning - might make them withdraw from social gatherings or make them have difficulty maintaining healthy social relationships also impacting their mental health. |
| social impact from ABI - social support | -bc of the impact on social life on their mental health an individual may receive more social support during their rehabilitation in the form of visits or regular check ins. |
| social impact from ABI - antisocial behaviour | -following brain injury, individuals may demonstrate lower leveels of self-esteem which may increase levels of loneliness and a tendency to engage in aggressive and/or antisocial behaviour. |
| neurological disorders | -Diseases that affect an individual's brain, spinal cord or other nerves in their body are considered to be a neurological disorder. any damage to or malfunctioning of the nervous system. |
| what does neurological disorders lead to | can lead to many psychological and physiological symptoms. -structural changes -functional changes -physiological changes |
| structural changes | Refers to alterations in the brain's physical structure, like the connections between neurons (synapses). |
| Functional changes | Refers to shifts in an individual's thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and overall mental functioning. |
| Physiological changes | Refers to shifts in an individual's thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and overall mental functioning. |
| examples of common neurological disorders are | -neurodegenerative diseases -epilepsy -multiple sclerosis -migraines |
| epilepsy | a neurological disorder that is associated with abnormal electrical activity in the brain and is categorised by recurrent seizures. |
| seizures | breif episodes of uncontrolled and unrestricted electrical discharging of neurons in the brain |
| specific mechanisms that lead to the development of epilepsy | epileptogenesis |
| epileptogenesis | The changes in the brain that occur that allow seizures to happen more frequently in those with epilepsy. |
| what is epileptogenesis an example of | It’s an example of neuroplasticity because elliptogenesis involves structural, functional and physiological changes within the brain. |
| what does parkinson's disease involve and what is it | -Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease characterised by both motor and non-motor symptoms. -It involves the progressive loss in neurons in the brain that are responsible or the production of the neurotransmitter called dopamine. |
| Neurotransmitters | chemical messengers that transmit signals between nerve cells (neurons) or between neurons and other cells like muscles or glands, enabling communication throughout the body |
| Dopamine | a neurotransmitter that is responsible for the coordination of voluntary movement (link with motor symptoms) and the experience of pleasure and pain (link with non-motor symptoms) |
| motor symptoms of PD | -Bradykinesia (slowness of movement) -Postural instability -Tremors |
| Non-motor symptoms of PD | -Pain -Depression -Fatigue -Loss of smell |
| what does contemporary research do? | contributes on our understanding of neurological disorders, including their causes, diagnosis and possible treatments |
| what is contemporary research | Contemporary research refers to research and studies that have been conducted in the last 5-10 years that utilises modern techniques and technology. |
| what does contemporary research rely on | innovative tools like: -Neuroimaging techniques -Brain and body dissections -Animal studies -Data analysis software -New and innovative research procedure |
| some areas of contemporary research that are contributing to our understanding of of neurological disorders | -machine learning -gut-brain axis (GBA) -stem cell research (newer and still continuing) |
| machine learning | A subfield of AI that allows software to become more accurate at predicting outcomes by mimicking the way that humans learning |
| types of machine learning | -supervised learning -unsupervised learning |
| what does supervised learning in machine learning involve | -the use of labelled data to train algorithms on how to classify data or predict outcomes |
| example of supervised learning in machine learning | -by presenting an algorithm with hundreds of images of typical brains and parkinson's affected brains, labelled as such, it will eventually be able to detect the difference between the two without any human input or labelling. |
| supervised learning in machine learning - how it is utilised in terms of neurological disorders. | -most often used as a way to diagnose neurological disorders in a more efficient and accurate way, |
| supervised learning in machine learning - how it is utilised in terms of neurological disorders. -what can it include | -detection of which stage of a disorder an individual is in -specifically, in progressive diseases, such as pd, or during the process of epileptogensis. |
| what does unsupervised learning in machine learning involve | -using an algorithm to identify patterns or trends within data (that are not labelled) that have not yet been discovered. |
| example of unsupervised learning in machine learning | -may be used to analyse the demographic odata of epilepsy patients to uncover trends as to which groups of people are most susceptible to the disorder. |
| unsupervised learning in machine learning - how it is utilised in terms of neurological disorders. | -often used to analyse the demographics of individuals with neurological disorders or to identify biological markers that may have been previously overlooked. |
| Similarity between supervised and unsupervised machine learning | Supervised machine learning and unsupervised machine learning both use algorithms to analyse data. |
| The gut-brain axis (GBA) | The bidirectional connection between the gut and the brain through multiple parts of the nervous system. |
| what does the gut have a huge impact on | functioning |
| the gut brain connection | -if there are issues with one, the way it communicates with the other may be affected in a negative way. -therefore, the gut can influence our psychological processes and behaviours |
| example of the gut brain connection | The feeling of having butterflies when someone is nervous in your stomach shows the gut-brain connection. |
| there are links between the gut and- | -Stress -Mental illness -Memory -Behaviour |
| gut | The long flexible rube from the mouth to the anus that is the passageway involved in digestion. |
| Gut microbiota | All of the microorganisms that live in the gut. |
| Microbiota and the gut-brain connection | -Lots of ‘good’ bacteria = positive influence on behavior and psychological processes -Too much ‘bad’ bacteria = negative influence on behaviour and psychological processes. |
| is the gut-brain connection causal? | research is still emerging, so you wouldn't say that ‘poor gut health’ causes psychological issues’. More that research suggests that there are connections between the gut and psychological processes. |
| the bidirectional connection of the gut-brain axis | -gut to brain - the brain, central nervous system and phychological processes and behaviour such as stress -brain to gut - the gut, eneric nervous system, gut microbiota |
| treatments for parkinson's that are associated with the gut brain axis | FMT |
| treatments for epilepsy that are associated with the gut brain axis | -ketogenic diet -probiotic and antibiotic treatments |
| What is Faecal Microbiota Transplantation (FMT)? | -a procedure where faecal matter from a healthy donor is transferred into the intestinal tract of a recipient. It aims to restore healthy gut bacteria and improve physical or mental health. |
| Parkinson’s – FMT - gut-brain axis | FMT is an intervention involving the administration of faecal matter from a healthy donor into the intestinal tract of a recipient. |
| Parkinson’s – FMT Mouse Studies - gut-brain axis -what did the mice show? | -Mice given FMT from Parkinson’s patients showed more motor symptoms than mice given FMT from healthy controls. -Mice with Parkinson’s receiving FMT from healthy mice showed improved motor function and decreased brain inflammation. |
| Epilepsy – How the Ketogenic Diet Works - gut-brain axis -What does the ketogenic diet do in the body? | The ketogenic diet causes a state of ketosis, where the body uses fat instead of carbohydrates for energy. This changes how the body and brain use energy and process food. |
| Epilepsy – How the Ketogenic Diet Works - gut-brain axis -How does the ketogenic diet help treat epilepsy? | Ketosis may reduce uncontrolled electrical activity in the brain, which helps lower the frequency and severity of seizures in people with epilepsy, especially children. |
| Epilepsy – Alternative Treatments - gut-brain axis | -Probiotic and antibiotic treatments may be as effective as traditional drugs. -More research is needed due to weak study designs |
| stem cell research (newer still continuing) | Stem cells can be converted into neuronal cells and implanted into brain parts that have been damaged or affected by disease. |
| Stem cells | -the body’s ‘building block’ cells which all other cells which all other cells are generated from. |
| Chronic traumatic encephalopathy | a progressive, neurodegenerative and fatal brain disease associated with repeated exposure to mild traumatic brain injuries, such as concussions. |
| CTE is associated with what? | the widespread build up of a particular protein substance (p-tau) in brain regions, such as the brainstem, hippocampus, cerebral cortex, particularly the frontal lobe and temporal lobe. |
| hippocampus location and function | temporal lobe - part of your brain that's responsible for your memory and learning |
| Encephalopathy | the term for any disease of the brain that alters its function or structure |
| what type of injury is CTE | It is an acquired brain injury (ABI) |
| Causes of cte - external perspective | Repeated blows to the head can occur in contact sports, serving the army or domestic violence. |
| do the head injuries that cause cte have to lead to concussion | These blows don’t always have to result in a concussion, but quite often, they do. |
| Causes of cte - Internal perspective | Repeated blows to the head are going to result in actual movement of the brain inside the skull. |
| what does the movement in the skull from head injuries cause | This movement inside the skull triggers an abnormal build-up of protein called p-tau |
| P-Tau | is a good protein. It serves a purpose of keeping the structure of our neurons. -But if we have too much of it, it can lead to the death of brain cells. |
| what kind of symptoms is cte associated with and why | CTE is a neurodegenerative disease as the damage occurs over time, and it is associated with symptoms that progressively worsen. |
| when do symptoms of cte appear | in older, retired athletes, sports players, and war veterans years, or even decades, after repeated head injuries are experienced |
| cte- Stage 1: very mild -symtoms | -Headaches -Loss of attention and concentration |
| cte- Stage 2: mild -symtoms | -Depression -Mood swings -Short-term memory loss -Irritation, impulsivity, and emotional outbursts |
| cte- Stage 3: moderate -symtoms | -Executive dysfunction, such as impairments in decision-making, problem solving, and forming judgements. -Memory loss -Difficulties with attention and concentration -Depression and mood impairments -Visuospatial difficulties |
| cte- State 4: severe -symtoms | Dementia Profound loss of attention and concentration Language difficulties Aggression Paranoia Difficulties with walking Visuospatial problems, including difficulties interpreting spatial relationships and navigating movements Suicidal thoughts |
| The reason for these changes in the symptoms and the progression of the changes in cte | to do with where in the brain is being affected at any point in time. -Typically the death of cells is happening more in the outer regions of our brain, in the cerebral cortex, and then gradually worsens to the inner areas of the brainn |
| diagnosis of CTE | The only way a conclusive diagnosis can be made is through a post-mortem examination of the brain in which abnormal brain pathology and p-tau can be detected. |
| can a diagnosis of cte be made when a person is alive? | A definitive diagnosis of CTE can not be made while a person is alive and experiencing symptoms because there is no way to detect p-tau build up in the brain yet. |
| The build-up of the p-tau protein results in what | neurofibrillary tangles. |
| neurofibrillary tangles | An accumulation of the protein tau that forms insoluble tangles within neurons, which then inhibit the transportation of essential substances and eventually kill the neuron entirely. |
| what do the build-up of p-tau protein and neurofibrillary tangles do? | inhibit the transportation of essential substances within the neurons (the cells of our brain) and eventually kill the neuron. |
| main things that is being looked for to see and measure in post-mortem examinations for cte | the build-up of the p-tau protein. |
| what can they see in post mortem examinations (CTE) | they can see and measure the neurofibrillary tangles, and in addition to that, they can see the overall loss in neurons and whole areas of the brain. |
| since diagnosis of cte is still an emerging research... | there is work being done to develop a test to diagnose CTE in patients while they’re alive. |
| what are brain banks | A brain bank is a specialised research facility that collects brain tissue from donors after death and uses it to conduct and promote research into neurological disorders like CTE |
| what are the brain banks doing? | There are brain banks around the world, including the Australian Sports Brain Bank (ASBB), that are working to develop a test to diagnose CTE in patients while they are still alive. |
| One area of research is focusing on the use of PET scans - explain | use a specific tracer that attaches and binds to the p-tau protein build-up and then enables measurement of it. |
| what other research is being done as part of diagnosis for CTE | MRI scans PET scans |
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