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Clinical Psych all
Covers terms, studies etc.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Schizophrenia | A mental disorder that includes symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, flattened effect, etc. This disorder includes both positive and negative symptoms and can vary for each person on the details of their symptoms. |
| ICD-11 | The global standard for diagnosing and coding health information including mental and physical disorders. |
| Positive symptoms of schizophrenia | A symptom that is an added on or a distortion of a normal experience, example persistent hallucinations. |
| Negative symptoms of schizophrenia | A symptom that occurs when level of functioning falls below normal levels, example flattened affect. |
| Delusions | An individual holds these beliefs which are not based on reality, e.g. falsely believing that someone is going to harm them. |
| Persecutory delusion | The type of delusion where an individual believes they are in danger or in harm. |
| Grandiose delusion | The type of delusion where an individual believes they are someone with special abilities or powers. |
| Delusion of reference | The type of delusion where an individual believes that the environment and events happening are specifically related to them. |
| Hallucinations | Sensory experiences such as hearing things that aren't there, seeing things that aren't there (voices, people, etc). |
| Flatted affect | The reduction or absense of an expression of feelings and emotions externally (such as facial). |
| Thought disorder | The inability to think and therefore speak in an organised manner. |
| Avolition | The inability to have motivation or interest in goal-related behaviour. |
| Catatonia | The inability to move or speak normally. |
| Aneja et al (2018) | Three case studies of individuals who developed early-onset schizophrenia. The first core study was about a boy who had been hearing voices from the age of 12 and continued to gain symptoms as his age increased. |
| Persecutory ideation | The belief that people want to hurt you, despite any evidence or proof to back that thought up. |
| Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) | a 53 item self-report measure designed tp assess 9 symptom dimensions over the last seven days. |
| Freeman et al (2003) summary | The use of virtual reality to investigate persecutory ideation with participants who had no history of mental illnesses. |
| Freeman et al (2003) context | Virtual reality was to be used in psychology, therefore it was used by them to assess persecutory ideation. |
| Freeman et al (2003) aim | To investigate whether individuals without a history of mental illnesses have thoughts of persecutory ideation in virtual reality. |
| Freeman et al (2003) aim | 12 male and 12 female participants, students or staff from University College London who had no history of mental illness, recruited through volunteer sampling. |
| Freeman et al (2003) procedure | Participants were first trained to use the VR equipment, and entered a library scene for 5 minutes and were trying to see what the people may think of the participant, which they then measured through the BSI and questionnaires. |
| Freeman et al (2003) results | Significant correlation between the questionnaire and interview based score. Participants had some ideas of persecution. The high levels of interpersonal sensitivity and anxiety were correlated with higher levels of persecutory ideation. |
| Freeman et al (2003) conclusions | People are more likely to show persecutory ideation if they have high levels of anxiety or interpersonal sensitivity. |
| Freeman et al (2003) strengths | No gender bias due to equal male and female participants, ethical as they gave consent & had right to withdraw. |
| Freeman et al (2003) limitations | Might not be applicable to daily life as it is a virtual setting which could have confounding variables, self-report bias due to self-report questionnaires |
| Genetic explanations of schizophrenia | This is the explanation that states that a particular combination of genes passed down to an offspring can help identify the cause of the disorder to develop. |
| Family studies | A type of study investigating whether biological relatives of those with a disorder are more likely to be similarly affected |
| Twin studies | A type of study comparing sets of twins to analyse similarities and differences which could include concordance rates for DZ and MZ sets. |
| Adoption studies | A type of study looking at the similarities between adopted individuals and their biological parents as a way of investigating the differing influences of biology. |
| Monozygotic twins (MZ) | Identical twins who share 100% of their DNA with each other. |
| Dizygotic twins (DZ) | Non-identical (fraternal) twins who share approximately 50% of their DNA with each other. |
| Concordance rates | The presence of a particular observable trait or disorder in both individuals between family members and within a set of twins, such as the likelihood that one twin will have schizophrenia if the other twin has schizophrenia |
| Gottesman (1991) | This study found the likelihood of developing schizophrenia with the different types of relatives, such as with general population it is 1%, whereas with identical twins it is 48%. |
| Tienari et al (2000) | This study found schizophrenia with 6.7% of adoptees with a biological mother with schizophrenia suggesting that there is a genetic influence. |
| Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia | The hypothesis stating that the brains of people of those with schizophrenia produce more dopamine than those without. |
| Post-mortem studies to support dopamine hypothesis | The examination of a person's brain after they have died, to investigate abnormalities that can explain symptoms they experienced when they were alive. |
| PET scans to support dopamine hypothesis | This is a technique that uses gamma cameras to detect radioactive tracers, such as glucose, that is injected into the blood. This tracer accumulates in areas of high activities in the brain causing a clear view for analysis. |
| Cognitive explanation of schizophrenia | The explanation stating that schizophrenia is involved with faulty mental processes and the way that the brain's cognition works with those with schizophrenia and those without. |
| Typical antipsychotics | Antipsychotics developed in the 1950s to reduce the effect of dopamine in order to reduce positive symptoms of schizophrenia. |
| Atypical antipsychotics | Antipsychotics developed in the 1990s that affect dopamine levels in order to reduce both positive symptoms and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. |
| Side effects of antipsychotics | These are the consequences of taking a medication, other than the intended cause. (For example, dizziness and sedation, dry mouth, etc.) |
| Electro-convulsive therapy for schizophrenia | A biological treatment that was used in the 1900s to alleviate schizophrenia symptoms with the use of electricity to induce seizures. |
| Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) for schizophrenia | A psychological treatment used to treat mental disorders that incorporates both cognitive and behaviourist approaches, talking with a therapist to recognise the behaviours done by schizophrenic patients. |
| Sensky et al (2000) | An example study that carried out a randomised control trial to compare the effectiveness of CBT on schizophrenia with 90 patients aged 16-60 years. |
| Depressive disorder (unipolar) | A disorder characterised by periods of sadness, irritability, emptiness or loss of pleasure. This may be accompanied by other feelings, such as guilt, worthlessness or a preoccupation with death. They must never have had a manic episode. |
| Bipolar disorders | A disorder which is characterised by fluctuating periods of manic episodes and depressive episodes. |
| Type I bipolar disorder | A type of bipolar disorder defined by the occurrence of at least one manic or mixed episode, along with at least one depressive episode |
| Type 2 bipolar disorder | A type of bipolar disorder defined by the occurrence of at least one hypomanic episode and at least one depressive episode |
| Manic episode | Showing an extreme mood for at least one week, often including feelings of euphoria, high levels of activity and feelings of increased energy (which may come with feelings of irritability as well). They often show rapid speech and impulsivity |
| Mixed episode | Showing rapid alternations between manic and depressive states on most days during a 2-week period |
| Depressive episode | Showing a depressed mood for at least two weeks, including such symptoms as lack of interest in usual activities, changes to sleep and appetite, feelings of worthlessness and guilt |
| Hypomanic episode | This is a less extreme version of the manic episode, often involving several days of elevated mood or irritability, increased activity and energy levels that are different to the individual's norm. |
| Beck's Depressioin Inventory (BDI) | A measure of depressive symptoms, which contains 21 statements that the patient has a 4-point scale to choose from. These cover topics like self-dislike, crying, loss of interest etc. It gives a score out of 63 |
| Biochemical explanations for mood disorders | Low levels of dopamine may cause depression (since dopamine increases feelings of pleasure and motivation), as well as low levels of serotonin (which is likely to lead to increased anxiety and poor sleep) |
| Genetic explanations of mood disorders | The theory that mood disorders can be inherited from family members, including candidate genes such as the 5-HT transporter gene (studied by Oruc) |
| Polymorphisms | In the context of the Oruc study, this term refers to the different types of genes that a participant could have, i.e. they may have different polymorphisms on the serotonin transporter gene that affects their serotonin transmission |
| Oruc et al (1997) summary | The study examined bipolar I patients, analysizing a serotonin gene to identify gentic links. The study found no overall gentic link to bipolar diorder, but women with bipolar had more serotonin gene polymorphisms, suggesting a female-specfic risk. |
| Oruc et al (1997) context | Bipolar disorder is linked to genetics, nuerotrasmitter imbalances, and psychological triggers like truma or sleep distrubences. |
| Oruc et al (1997) aim | The aim is to nvestigate wheter the genes encoding for certain serotonin receptors and serotonin transportes could be involved in susceptability to bipolar disorder. |
| Oruc et al (1997) sample | 42 bipolar I patients (25 fmales, 17 males, aged 31-70) from Croatian hospitals , with 16 having first-degree relative with a major affectiv disorder. A control group of 40 had no psychiatric history. |
| Oruc et al (1997) procedure | Particapnts psychiatric history was confirmed, DNA testing analysed serotonin gene polymorphisims, and results were comapred between bipolar patients and controls. |
| Oruc et al (1997) results | No significant gentic differences were fund between bipolar and control groups. However, women with bipolar had more serotinin gene polymorphisms than controls. |
| Oruc et al (1997) conclusions | Serotonin gene polymorphisms may increase bipolar risk in females, but no overall gentic link was found. |
| Oruc et al (1997) strengths | Used DNA analysis in a lab, reducing researcher biass and increasing validty. Helps in understanding genetic risks, adiding early screeing and intervention. |
| Oruc et al (1997) limitations | Small sample size limits genralizability. Some control particpants were young, meaning they could devlop bipolar later, making age an extraneous variable. |
| Beck's cognitive theory of depression | The belief that depression is the result of faulty thinking patterns and cognitive distortions (such as forgetting the positive events in life and focusing on the negative), leading to a negative view of the self, the world and the future |
| Schemas | These are mental models we have of the world around us, which help to speed up processing (since we map our expectations onto the world rather than perceiving everything from scratch) but can lead to negative expectations |
| Learned helplessness and attribution style | Attributional style is how people explain events, this influences their mindset and learned helplessness is when repeated failure leads to the belief that effort is useless |
| Seligman et al (1988) | They tested attributional style on patients with depressive disorders. Unipolar and Bipolar ppts had more pessimistic attributional styles compared to the control group |
| Tricyclics (antidepressants) | a group of anti-depressants that increase the levels of serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain. |
| MAOIs (antidepressants) | Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors stops the enzyme, monoamine oxidase from breaking down and removing serotonin, dopamine and morepinephrine. |
| SSRIs (antidepressants) | Selective Serotonin reuptake inhibitors stops the serotonin from being reabsorbed and broken down once it has crossed the synapse |
| Side effects of antidepressants | nausea, vomiting, weight gain, drowsiness, blurred vision, headaches, insomnia, diarrhea, constipation, withdrawal, high blood pressure etc. |
| Beck's cognitive restructuring to treat mood disorders | A therapy that aims to change the person's cognitive restructuring and the way they think about their environment. |
| Ellis' rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) | changing thoughts through 'disputing', it involves questioning irrational beliefs to reformulate dysfunctional beliefs. |
| Impulsive Control Disorders (ICDs) | repeated inability to resist the impulse or urge to carry out a behaviour |
| Kleptomania | characterised by a poerful impulse to steak. its very hard to resist and they will oftern steal things as a result |
| Pyromania | Characterised by a powerful impulse to set fires. its very hard to resist, which leads to the person persistently setting fires |
| Gambling disorder | a disorder involving a pattern of persistent or recurring gambling behaviours either online or offline. |
| Kleptomania Symptom Assessment Scale (KSAS) | 11 item self report scale used to assess stealing related impulses, thought, feelings and behaviours. higher scores indicate greater symptom severity |
| Dopamine as an explanation of ICDs | dopamine, the 'happy hormone' reinforces compulsive behaviours by creating a reward response. |
| Behavioural: positive reinforcement to explain ICDs | reinforces impulsive behaviours through operant conditioning, when the pleasure of winning increases the likelihood of repeating the behaviour |
| Cognitive: Miller's feeling-state theory to explain ICDs | caused when positive feelings are linked with a particular behaviour. |
| Opiate antagonists | it blocks the brain's reward system, reducing the pleasurable effects of the compulsive behaviours |
| Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale Modified for Pathological Gambling (PG-YBOCS) | a scale to assess gambling severity by assessing symptoms over the past seven day in terms of gambling urges, thoughts and behaviours. |
| Grant et al (2008) summary | they tested the effectiveness of opiate antagonists on 284 people and found that a family history of strong gambling urges had a positive treatment response |
| Grant et al (2008) context | Kim et al (2001) found that opiate antagonists can treat pathological gambling but individual differences affect the effectiveness. |
| Grant et al (2008) aim | to find out what factors affect how well opiate antagonists work in order to treat gambling addiction. |
| Grant et al (2008) sample | 284 men and women from USA who had PG and had gambled in the last two weeks. Equal number of men and women |
| Grant et al (2008) procedure | 18 week double blind trials with independent group designs and were given either nalmefene or placebo |
| Grant et al (2008) results | 35% reduction in PG-YBOCS scores. Those with a family history of alcoholism showed better results |
| Grant et al (2008) conclusions | family history of alcoholism and strong gambling urges may predict better response to opiate antagonists |
| Grant et al (2008) strengths | no bias, objective data collection (PG-YBOCS), real world application |
| Grant et al (2008) limitations | ethical concerns about placebo deception |
| Covert sensitisation | an unpleasant stimulus such as nausea is paired with an undesirable behaviour like stealing |
| Glover (1985) | they tested covert desensitisation on a 56 year old woman with a 14 year history of shoplifting. At the 19th month check-up, she reported a decresed desire of stealing. |
| Imaginal desensitisation | they imagine themselves engaging in the impulsive behaviour then mentally leave the situation. |
| Blaszczynski and Nower (2003) | they tested imaginal desensitisation on clients with impulse control issues. It improved the ability to resist impulses even after five years. |
| Generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) | A mental health conditioned charcterised by excessive, persistent worry about daily life , lasting at least 6 months , often with restlessness, fatigue, and diffculty conncentrating. |
| Agoraphobia | An Anxiety disorder where a person fears or avoids places or situations that may cause excessive fear panic, feeling trapped, helpless, or embarrassed. |
| Specific phobia: Blood-Injection-Injury (BII) | A mental health condition charcterised by excessive fear or anixety that occurs consistentely when exposued to, or in anticipation of a spefic stimulus ; Speficially in this secnario the exposure , anticipation of the sight of blood injection or injury. |
| Generalised Anxiety Disorder Assessment (GAD-7) | A Questionnaire that consists of 7 items that measures the severity of anxiety. Scores range from 0-21 , with higher scores indicating more severe anxiety. |
| Blood Injection Phobia Inventory (BIPI) | Is a self-repot measure that lists 18 possible situations involving blood and injections. They are then rated on a scale of 0-3 on the frequency of each symptom. |
| Mas et al (2010) | Tested the BIPI for reliability and concurrent validity, and found that it was a good measure of blood injection phobia, as well as a useful therapeutic tool for tracking progress in treatment |
| Genetic explanation for anxiety and fear-related disorders | This explantion suggests that we are born prepared to fear certain objects, This fear/anixety is trasmitted in our DNA through the genreations to help our survival. |
| Ost (1992) | Investigated the origins of phobias and found that blood phobia had a strong genetic link, as many individuals with the phobia had close relatives with the same fear, suggesting an inherited vulnerability. |
| Classical and operant conditioning as explanation for fear-related disorders | This explantion suggest fear is learned by associating a stimulus with fear and mainted by avoidence of of the fear, reinforcing it . |
| Watson & Rayner (1920) 'Little Albert' | A study demonstrating classical conditioning, where a white rat (neutral stimulus) was paired with a loud noise, leading to a learned fear response that generalized to similar objects. |
| Psychodynamic explanations for fear-related disorders | This explantion suggest that fear stems from an unconscious conflicts, often rooted in childhood experiences , and is displcaed into sepcfic objects or sitautions as a defsnse mechanism. |
| Freud (1909) 'Little Hans' | A case study of a 5-year-old boy with a horse phobia, which Freud explained as displaced fear from his father due to the Oedipus complex, supporting his psychodynamic theory. |
| Systematic desensitisation for fear-related disorders | A therapy that that gradually reduces fear by exposing individuals to the feared stimulus in a controlled way while teaching relaxation techniques. |
| CBT for anxiety and fear-related disorders | A thearpy that helps individuals identify and challenge irrational fears, replace them with realistic thoughts, and gradually face feared situations to reduce anxiety. |
| Applied tension focusing on treating blood - injection - injury phobia | A technique where individuals tense their muscles to prevent fainting caused by a drop in blood pressure when exposed to blood or injections. |
| Chapman & DeLapp (2013) summary | Treated BII phobia using CBT and applied muscle tension. A 42-year-old male showed significant improvement, with no phobic symptoms at a 12-month follow-up. The study supports CBT’s effectiveness but lacks generalisability. |
| Chapman & DeLapp (2013) context | CBT is effective for treating phobias, but BII phobia requires applied muscle tension to prevent fainting. This study tested if CBT and muscle tension could successfully treat BII phobia. |
| Chapman & DeLapp (2013) aim | Investigate if CBT & applied muscle tension can treat Blood-Injection-Injury (BII) phobia |
| Chapman & DeLapp (2013) sample | A 42-year-old male diagnosed with BII phobia and a history of anxiety and family-related traumatic experiences. He also had major depressive disorder (in remission). |
| Chapman & DeLapp (2013) procedure | The study used interviews and self-report measures to assess a 42-year-old male with BII phobia before he underwent nine CBT sessions, including fear hierarchy exposure and applied muscle tension. His anxiety decreased, and follow-ups to 12 months |
| Chapman & DeLapp (2013) findings | The participant's anxiety decreased, he no longer fainted during medical procedures, and follow-ups confirmed long-term improvement. |
| Chapman & DeLapp (2013) conclusions | CBT and applied muscle tension effectively treated BII phobia, reducing anxiety and preventing fainting with long-term success. |
| Chapman & DeLapp (2013) strengths | Provides rich, detailed data through a case study, uses both qualitative and quantitative measures, and demonstrates long-term effectiveness of CBT and applied muscle tension. |
| Chapman & DeLapp (2013) limitations | Lacks generalisability due to a single participant, relies on self-report measures, and cannot be replicated for reliability. |
| Obsessive Compulsive Disorder | A disorder involving persistent intrusive thoughts that compel the patient to act in certain ways, such as repetitive cleaning or checking. These must take up >1 hour per day and cause significant distress |
| Rapoport (1989) 'Charles' | A case study of a 12 year old boy with OCD. His main compulsion was to clean his hands for several hours per day, even leading to him having to quit school. Drug treatment was effective until he developed a tolerance for it after a year. |
| Maudsley Obsessive Compulsive Inventory (MOCI) | A 30-item True/False questionnaire used to measure OCD symptoms. Gives a score out of 30 and covers sub-scales, including checking, cleaning, slowness and doubting |
| Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) | A semi-structured interview technique used to measure OCD, which includes a checklist of 67 items. It includes subcategories such as aggressive obsessions, sexual obsessions, contamination obsessions and more |
| Dopamine to explain OCD | Abnormally high levels of dopamine are found in OCD sufferers, possibly because dopamine rewards their compulsive behaviours |
| Serotonin to explain OCD | Abnormally low levels of serotonin are found in OCD sufferers, presumably because they lack the serotonin (which is an inhibitory neurotransmitter) to stop their obsessions and compulsions |
| Oxytocin to explain OCD | Some suggest that oxytocin may cause feelings of distrust and fear of stimuli that could threaten survival. The evidence for the link between oxytocin and OCD is mixed though. |
| Genetic explanations for OCD | Some candidate genes have been suggested as causing OCD, such as the SERT gene - which affects serotonin production. Twin studies, such as Monzani support it with 52% MZ concordance and 21% DZ concordance. |
| Cognitive (thinking error) to explain OCD | OCD is causing by irrational beliefs, such as overexaggerating the amount of harmful germs on one's hands. This is particularly so during times of great stress |
| Behavioural (operant conditioning) to explain OCD | Positive reinforcement occurs when an OCD sufferer fulfils a compulsion (e.g. arranging clothes neatly) and sees the result. They also receive negative reinforcement due to the alleviation of anxiety. Combined these ensure the compulsion is repeated. |
| Psychodynamic explanations for OCD | OCD is due to a patient being fixated during the anal stage of psychosexual development, and as a result uses their obsessions and compulsions as a defence mechanism to gain some control |
| SSRIs to treat OCD | These drugs alleviate symptoms by stopping serotonin from being reabsorbed back into the neuron they came from, so they can be transmitted to help inhibit their obsessions and compulsions. Soomro found them to be effective across 17 studies |
| Exposure and response prevention (ERP) for OCD | A type of CBT in which the patient is encouraged to carry out an action that normally elicits a compulsion (e.g. touching a door handle) and then coached into being able to avoid acting compulsively. |
| Lehmkuhl et al (2008) | Case study of Jason, an autistic patient diagnosed with OCD. Through exposure and response prevention over 16 weeks, his Y-BOCS score dropped from 18 to just 3. |
| CBT to treat OCD | The therapist will help the patient to identify the triggers of their obsessions and compulsions, and then dispute the irrational beliefs attached to it (e.g. no, your family will not all die if you fail to wash your hands), to develop rational beliefs |
| Lovell et al (2006) summary | They assigned 72 OCD patients to either face:face CBT or CBT over the phone, and found that telephone-delivered CBT can be an effective treatment for OCD. |
| Lovell et al (2006) context | CBT had previously been found to be an effective treatment for OCD, but it is expensive and time-consuming, with long waiting lists. |
| Lovell et al (2006) aim | To test whether telephone-delivered CBT could be just as effective as face:face when treating OCD |
| Lovell et al (2006) sample | 72 OCD patients from the UK, all of whom had a Y-BOCS score over 16 and did not have substance abuse or a mood disorder. |
| Lovell et al (2006) procedure | OCD patients were tested using the Y-BOCS by 'blind' assessors. They tend underwent CBT treatment, half of them face:face and half of them over the phone (randomly allocated). Their Y-BOCS was reassessed at 1, 3, and 6-month follow ups |
| Lovell et al (2006) results | Both forms of CBT (phone or face:face) were significantly effective at reducing OCD. Phone CBT reduced Y-BOCS score by 2+ standard deviations in 77% of cases, and face:face reduced it in 67% of cases |
| Lovell et al (2006) conclusions | Telephone-delivered CBT is at least as effective at reducing OCD, and led to equal levels of patient satisfaction |
| Lovell et al (2006) strengths | Control variables (such as blind assessors); random allocation of patients to phone or face:face; quantitative data testing |
| Lovell et al (2006) limitations | Possible participant variables (due to random allocation); hard to control all variables over 6 months; only done in the UK |
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