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COG NEURO EXAM 3
Ch 9, 10, 13
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is learning? | A process by which experience changes behavior or mental processes |
| What is habituation? | Learning not to respond to a repeated presentation of a stimulus |
| What are examples of habituation? | Getting used to the ring on your hand |
| What is sensitization? | Learning to over-respond to a single presentation of a stimulus |
| What is Donald Hebb's mantra? | Neurons that fire together wire together |
| Reflexes do NOT require the | Prefrontal cortex |
| If a puff or air was presented to someone's eye every time a tone was played, what would happen? | The reflexive action of blinking would become associated with the tone, the patient would start blinking after hearing the tone alone |
| In the example of Hebbian synapses where a puff of air to the eye is presented with a tone, what happens? | A neuron in the somatosensory system which is a strong reflexive reflex triggers a motor neuron to trigger a blink. The weaker neuron in the auditory system is associated with the stronger synapse firing |
| What does LTP stand for? | Long term potentiation |
| Long term potentiation is... | synapses being made stronger by repeated stimulation or activation |
| What is the neural basis of learning? | long term potentiation |
| What are the basis of long term memory according to Hebb? | changes in synaptic efficiency |
| that the cellular basis of learning involves strengthening of a synapse that is repeatedly active.... | when the postsynaptic neuron fires. |
| Low rate of stimulation does not... | depolarize the membrane sufficiently |
| What causes a neuron to reach the threshold for establishment of long-term potentiation? | EPSPs produced by a high rate of stimulation |
| AMPA and NDMA are.... | Ionotropic glutamate receptors |
| NMDA receptors are weird because... | there is a molecule of Mg2+ stuck in the pore which prevents entry |
| What causes Mg2+ to leave the pore of an NMDA receptor? | The depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane on which the NMDA receptor sits |
| More receptors on a neuron equals... | a bigger effect |
| LTP/ learning can cause structural changes such as... | an increase in the number of receptors or an increase in the points of connectivity |
| Damage to the prefrontal lobe will produce disruptions in | executive functioning |
| What kind of test is the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test? | win-stay; lose-shift test |
| In the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, patients with prefrontal lobe damage will not.... | change their strategy when they are told they are wrong... they perseverate on the mistakes |
| A monkey in the delayed nonmatch-to-sample task will associate the food with | the symbol on the card placed above the food |
| What section of the brain is characteristically healthy in amnesiacs? | Amygdala |
| What are the long term memory stages? | encoding, acquisition, and consolidating |
| Consolidating is | the third stage in long term memory where a short term memory is converted into a long term memory |
| Hippocampal damage means that you are not able to form | new memories |
| Declarative memory is... | explicit |
| Nondeclarative memory is... | implicit |
| episodic memory is based on | events |
| episodic memory recall ability is | easy |
| semantic memory is based on | facts |
| semantic memory recall ability is | a bit harder since you have to recall facts |
| Declarative memory involves what types of memory? | episodic memory and semantic memory |
| Nondeclarative memory involves what types of memory? | Procedural memory, perceptual representation system, classic conditioning, nonassociative learning |
| Explicit memory is also called | verbal or episodic memory |
| Implicit memory is also called | nonverbal or semantic memory |
| Semantic memory is | memory of facts, general knowledge, and the meaning of words |
| Give an example of a test that uses semantic judgement | asking which of two pictures goes with one main picture |
| Give an example of a test that uses category fluency | asking the pt to name as many dog breeds as they can in one minute |
| What is Retrograde Amnesia? | The loss of info that was learned before the onset of amnesia |
| What is Anterograde Amnesia? | The inability to learn new info after the onset of amnesia |
| Temporal Gradient (Ribot’s Law) states that | there is a time gradient in retrograde amnesia, so that recent memories are more likely to be lost than the more remote memories. |
| Korsakoff's Amnesia is caused by | alcoholism and a deficit in B1 (thiamine) |
| Alzheimer's patients show early signs of Amnesia, with first lesions showing up in the... | Medial temporal lobe |
| Where does the brain damage occur in Korsakoff's Amnesia? | In the temporal lobe, which is weird because that is in the middle of the brain and usually is not damaged |
| What is confabulation? | giving incorrect responses to guess what the answer should be because the patient does not remember |
| What is impaired source memory? | "someone told me something" do not remember the source fo where you got information |
| Lesions of CA1 of Hippocampus produce significant ... | anterograde amnesia |
| What is procedural memory? | Skill learning that requires multiple trials and improvement is judged by accuracy or reaction time |
| What is the serial reaction test? | Basically the Simon color sequence game |
| What is the Rotary-Pursuit test? | Your finger follows the line on a spinning disc |
| What is the Mirror Tracing test? | Trace an object on a piece of paper by looking at a mirror for visual input |
| Rotary Pursuit learning correlates with activity in (what cortex?) | Primary and Secondary Motor Cortex |
| Serial Reaction Task correlates with activity in (what cortex + structures?) | Primary and Secondary Motor Cortex, and Basal Ganglia |
| What is required to learn repetitive sequences? | The Basal Ganglia Thalamic-Motor Cortical loop |
| What is required to learn new visual-motor mappings? | The Cerebellar-Motor Cortical loop |
| What causes the improvement that you see in the mirror tracing task? | Experience and the cerebellum |
| Amnesic patients show intact skills on what tests? | Rotary pursuit and Serial reaction task |
| Alzheimer’s patients show intact skills on what tests? | Rotary Pursuit and Mirror Tracing task |
| Parkinson’s patients impaired on what tests? | Rotary Pursuit and the serial reaction task |
| Huntington’s patients impaired on what tests? | Rotary Pursuit and Serial Reaction Task |
| Huntington's patients are NOT impaired when doing the | Mirror tracing test |
| What is Delay conditioning? | the Unconditioned Stimulus starts after a Conditioned Stimulus, but they co-occur |
| What is Trace conditioning? | the Unconditioned Stimulus starts after a Conditioned Stimulus, but they DO NOT co-occur |
| What is Fear Conditioning? | The Conditioned Stimulus is a neutral, the Unconditioned Stimulus is aversive/negative, and the Unconditioned/Conditioned Response is behavioral/physiological (like a Galvanic Skin Response) |
| Some Simple Learning Relies on Circuits in this Mammalian structure... | Cerebellum |
| The Delay conditioning (i.e the eye blink) test is abolished completely with what conditions? | Cerebellar lesions and Alzheimer's disease |
| The Delay conditioning (i.e the eye blink) test is impaired with what condition? | Korsakoff's amnesia |
| The Delay conditioning (i.e the eye blink) test is intact in what conditions? | Medial-Temporal amnesiacs and Huntington's (despite Basal-Ganglia lesions) |
| What condition had impaired trace conditioning? | Medial-Temporal amnesiacs |
| No amygdala, no | fear response |
| Fear conditioning is not possible in people with damage to their Amygdala despite what? | The fact that they still have intact declarative memory |
| Fear conditioning is Intact in amnesiacs despite what? | impaired declarative memory for contingency |
| What is Diencephalic amnesia ? | damage to the medial thalamus and mamillary nuclei caused by stroke or Thiamine deficiency |
| What is Medial temporal lobe amnesia? | HIPPOCAMPUS DAMAGE!!!!!! damage to the hippocampal formation, uncus, amygdala, and surrounding cortical areas |
| What is Transient Global Amnesia? | "Senior Moments" temporary symptoms that look like lesioned patients (due to stress/50+) |
| What is required to form NEW memories? | Hippocampus |
| What is the lack of insight of the disease state called? | Anosognosia |
| Are people with Korsakoff's aware of their memory issues? | No |
| Confabulation is a justification of | why the patient can't remember |
| What happened to H.M.? | He was an epileptic patient who had his medial temporal lobes removed to stop seizures. Seizures stopped but he became an amnesiac |
| James-Lange theory of fear states | a serial fear response where a physiological response occurs, then the fear emotion occurs |
| The Cannon-Bard theory of fear states | a fear response where the physiological response and the emotional fear occur at the same time |
| The Two-Factor theory of fear is also known as the | Cognitive appraisal theory |
| The Two-Factor/Cognitive appraisal theory of fear states... | The physiological response and the cognitive interpretation, "I feel afraid" happens at the same time, then this leads to emotion |
| The James-Lange theory is more __________ in comparison to the Two-Factor theory | primitive |
| The almond shaped structure at the base of the hippocampus is the | amygdala |
| Where was Phineas Gage's damage? | the orbitofrontal cortex |
| Phineas Gage's frontal lobe was separated from... | his limbic system |
| What in Phineas Gage was relatively intact? | his IQ |
| After Phineas Gage's accident, his behavior changed. How? | He was unable to control impulses and emotions, had poor planning skills, he became vulgar, child-like, and animalistic |
| How do you perform a frontal lobotomy? | a device was inserted into the orbital cavity and directed into the ventral portion of the frontal lobe |
| What did frontal lobotomy patients gain from the surgery? | flattened affect |
| "I'd rather have a bottle in front of me than a... | ...frontal lobotomy!" |
| Kluver Bucy syndrome occurs when there is damage to | the temporal lobes...specifically amygdala |
| What are the symptoms of Kluver Bucy syndrome? | Flat affect Indiscriminate and insatiable diet for foods + non foods Hypersensitivity and response to environmental stimulus Hypersexuality (auto, homo and hetero... like emotionless sex) Explores all objects with his mouth Visual agnosia |
| The foods you like are an... | ...emotional response! |
| autosexual means | sexual attraction to objects |
| Why would someone with Kluver Bucy syndrome put something in their mouth? | Because of visual agnosia, they can't identify the object without it |
| What is a conditional emotional response? | A classically conditioned response that occurs when a neutral stimulus is followed by an aversive stimulus |
| An unconditioned stimulus elicits an... | unconditioned response |
| An unconditioned response is... | the response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning |
| A conditioned stimulus is... | a previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response |
| A conditioned response is... | A learned response. A response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus |
| Auditory fear conditioning is blocked by a lesion to | The medial geniculate nucleus |
| Lesions to the auditory cortex do not | affect auditory fear conditioning |
| What is the critical pathway of auditory fear conditioning? | MGN to the amygdala |
| An amygdala lesion blocks | fear conditioning |
| Explain the "short cut" in the fear response | The stimulus enters the eyes and reaches the LGN of the thalamus where the Amygdala is then immediately activated. The visual cortex is also activated by the Thalamus later, this is what determines whether the stimulus is actually the fear |
| Who came up with the high road low road theory? | LeDoux |
| Fear memories are | permanent |
| What is systematic desensitization? | a behavioral therapy for conditioned fears |
| What is a flashbulb memory? | a strong, emotional memory |
| What makes memory stronger? | emotion and fear |
| The extinction of fear responses does not | erase the memory |
| New learning occurs that _______ old fear memories | inhibits |
| Fear response extinction requires what pathway in the brain? | the connection between the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and the amygdala |
| The fear response inhibition neurotransmitters are (potentially) | cannabinoids |
| What does endogenous mean? | from a body system |
| The lateral hypothalamus controls | sympathetic activation, increased heart rate, blood pressure, and paleness |
| The dorsal motor nucleus of vagus controls | parasympathetic activation, ulcers, urination, defecation |
| the parabrachial nucleus controls | increased respiration |
| the periaqueductal gray controls | behavioral arrest |
| the trigeminal facial motor nuclei controls | facial expressions of fear |
| the paraventricular nucleus controls | adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and glucocorticoid secretion |
| The lesioning of the Hippocampus in relation to fear causes | the prevention of the development of contextual fear (fear of locations) but the old fear responses are still there |
| What did Hohman discover in 1966 that supported James-Lange? | The theory that physiological responses are required to experience emotions |
| What did the Schacter and Singer experiment show? | Physiological changes and context control fear response |
| What was the Schacter and Singer experiment? | the waiting room experiment. People given epinephrine were more likely to respond to the environmental cues and have their entire mood change |
| Amygdala and prefrontal cortex clearly play a role in | human emotion |
| What brain region controls the recognition of negative facial expressions? | Amygdala |
| What hemisphere is dominant for perception of emotion? | the right hemisphere |
| In emotion, the right hemisphere notices | Facial expressions, emotional prosody, and reaction to emotional words |
| What are the distinctive expressions that transcend culture according to Ekman? | anger, sadness, happiness, fear, disgust, surprise, contempt, and embarrassment |
| What is the facial feedback hypothesis? | smiling does make you happier because the facial muscles give feedback and influence the emotional experience |
| T or F. Different muscles are engaged in real smiles and fake smiles | True |
| Real smiles involve what muscles? | the orbicularis oculi (eye muscles) and the zygomatic muscles (cheek muscles) |
| Only the zygomatic muscle can be activated | voluntarily |
| What is paresis? | weakness |
| What is volitional facial paresis? | difficulty in moving facial muscles voluntarily |
| What causes volitional facial paresis? | damage to the face region of the primary motor cortex |
| Someone with volitional facial paresis can/cannot fake smile and can/cannot real smile | cannot, can |
| What is emotional facial paresis? | Lack of movement of facial muscles in response to emotions in people who would have no difficulty moving these muscles voluntarily |
| What causes emotional facial paresis? | damage to the prefrontal cortex |
| Someone with emotional facial paresis can/cannot fake smile and can/cannot real smile | cannot, can |
| What is stress? | A general, imprecise term that can refer either to a stress response or to a stressor (stressful situation). |
| What is a stress response? | A physiological reaction caused by the perception of aversive or threatening situations. |
| What is a stressor? | something that produces a stress response |
| What physiological systems are involved in stress? | the nervous system, the endocrine system, and the immune system |
| The autonomic nervous system regulates | visceral activities and vital organs including circulation, digestion, respiration, temperature regulation |
| The two branches of the autonomic nervous system that maintain homeostatic balance are | the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system |
| What are the catecholamines that the sympathetic nervous system release? | epinephrine (adrenaline) norepinephrine (noradrenaline) |
| The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for | the responses associated with the fight-or-flight response |
| The parasympathetic nervous system maintains____________ by releasing ______________ and is responsible for _______________________ | homeostasis by releasing acetylcholine and is responsible for relaxation |
| The four components of the endocrine system are | glands hormones circulatory system (blood) target organs |
| The glands involved in the stress response are | pituitary , thyroid , adrenal |
| The endocrine system consists of hormonal glands that are located throughout the body which regulate | metabolic functions that require endurance rather than speed |
| The Nervous System and the Endocrine System Join together to form | metabolic pathways or axis |
| What is Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) | A hypothalamic hormone that stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete ACTH. |
| What is Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) | A hormone released by the anterior pituitary gland in response to CRH |
| What stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce glucocorticoids? | Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) |
| What are Glucocorticoids? | One of a group of hormones of the adrenal cortex that are important in protein and carbohydrate metabolism, secreted especially in times of stress. |
| Immediate effects of stress | Sympathetic nervous response Epinephrine and norepinephrine released Time: 2 to 3 seconds (instant message) |
| Intermediate effects of stress | Adrenal response Epinephrine and norepinephrine release from adrenals Time: 20 to 30 seconds (email) |
| Prolonged effects of stress | Glucocorticoid effects on organs and the brain Time: minutes, hours, days, or weeks |
| What is Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome? | Alarm – fight or flight Resistance – prolonged stress but organism is surviving Exhaustion – chronic stress, resources are depleted, health consequences are probable |
| What is the immune system? | a collection of billions of cells that travel through the bloodstream that move in and out of tissues and organs defending the body from foreign bodies (antigens) such as bacteria, virus, and cancerous cells |
| What is an antigen? | A protein present on a microorganism that permits the immune system to recognize the microorganism as an invader. |
| What is an antibody? | A protein produced by a cell of the immune system that recognizes antigens present on invading microorganisms. |
| During stress, the immune system’s ability to fight off antigens is | reduced/decreased |
| Stress makes the organism more susceptible to | infections |
| The stress hormone cortisol lowers the number of | lymphocytes |
| What are the two types of lymphocytes? | B cells and T cells |
| B cells produce what to do what? | produce antibodies which are released into the fluid surrounding the body’s cells to destroy the invading viruses and bacteria. |
| If the invader gets inside a cell, how do T cells respond? | lock on to the infected cell, multiply and destroy it. |
| Name a few issues that stress is linked to | headaches; infectious illness (e.g. flu); cardiovascular disease; diabetes, asthma and gastric ulcers |
| What are the symptoms of autism spectrum disorder? | difficulty developing social relations, impaired development of communication ability, lack of imagination ability, repetitive and stereotypical movements |
| What sex is most common with autism | males |
| One theory of autism is that there is a lack of | pruning |
| People with autism often show abnormal ______ _____ and differences in what major connective brain structure? | white matter and corpus callosum |
| the gyri of the cortex in autism is | atypical |
| what is ecolalia | repeating heard words and phrases |
| what is palelalia | repeating oneself |
| what is hyperacusis | hypersensitive hearing |
| What are the symptoms of autism spectrum disorder? | difficulty developing social relations, impaired development of communication ability, lack of imagination ability, repetitive and stereotypical movements |
| What sex is most common with autism | males |
| One theory of autism is that there is a lack of | pruning |
| People with autism often show abnormal ______ _____ and differences in what major connective brain structure? | white matter and corpus callosum |
| the gyri of the cortex in autism is | atypical |
| what is ecolalia | repeating heard words and phrases |
| what is palelalia | repeating oneself |
| what is hyperacusis | hypersensitive hearing |
| how does autism often present | atypical verbal and non-verbal behavior |
| what is the theory of mind? | the ability to make inferences about how someone else may be feeling/thinking |
| what is the Sally-Anne task? | Sally has a marble in her basket. When she is out of the room Anne moves the marble to her box. Where will Sally look for the marble when she comes back? The Sally-Anne task requires children to realize that Sally will not know Anne has moved her marble. |
| how would autistic children perform on the Sally-Anne task? | they will think that sally will just know that the marble has been moved even though she wouldn't be aware of it being moved |
| High level of theory of mind predicts | good social development later |
| Poor theory of mind predicts | poorer social development. |
| What is mind blindness? | It has been proposed that individuals with ASD direct their attention away from others because of deficits in their theory of mind |
| What face processing area in the brain is hyperactive in autism? | The fusiform gyrus |
| What is the self referential effect? | you remember info that pertains to you |
| If we lose our autobiographical memories ….do we lose our self? | No |
| When judging positive information from negative information about yourself, it involves the | anterior cingulate cortex |
| Having insight in your personal attributes requires a healthy orbitofrontal cortex. Patients with OFC damage tend have an | exaggerated positive bias |
| Alien Limb Syndrome | limb has will of its own |
| Feeling of Presence | having a shadow |
| Hemineglect | neglect half of body |
| Xenomelia | desire to amputate a limb |
| Somatoparaphrenia | that your body part belongs to another person |
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