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COG NEURO EXAM 2
Gazzaniga Ch 6, 7, 11
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| A specialized neuron that detects a particular category of physical events | Sensory receptor |
| A transfer of one form of energy to another | Transduction |
| The process by which sensory stimuli are transduced into slow, graded electrical potentials. | Sensory transduction |
| Perceived color of light is determined by: | Hue, brightness, and saturation |
| Hue is determined by | wavelength |
| Brightness is determined by | the intensity of electromagnetic radiation |
| Saturation is determined by | the purity of the light wave |
| Sensation is | The way the nervous system receives the information |
| Perception is | The way the brain organizes the information |
| Cortical blindness | when your visual system functions well, but your occipital lobe is damaged |
| With regard to perception, the term feature refers to | a fundamental concept of a visual pattern such as edge orientation or color |
| The color white is a display of | all color frequencies |
| White noise is | all frequencies of sound |
| The color black is a display of | the absence of all light |
| The colored ring of the eye is the | Iris |
| The pupil is a hole that | Allows light to come into the eye |
| The pupil expands and contracts | using smooth muscles |
| In fight or flight mode, the pupil dilates | to allow for better light intake |
| What focuses light to the back of the eye | Lens |
| The white of the eye is called the | sclera |
| Why do diabetics become blind? | Because of the restricted blood flow to the eye through the optic nerve |
| What is the blind spot? | The optic disc, part of the retina that does not have photo receptors |
| What is the fluid inside the eye called | Vitreous humor |
| What are the two photoreceptors? | Rods and cones |
| Cones are located centrally, so they influence | color and the sharpness of images (acuity) |
| What is the cell morphology of photoreceptors? | Bipolar cells (very complicated) |
| Bipolar photoreceptors send information to | Ganglion cells |
| The axons of Ganglion cells | form the optic nerve |
| The optic nerve is the __#__ cranial nerve | second (2) |
| What are the layers of the retina in order? | Photoreceptor layer, bipolar cell layer, ganglion cell layer |
| Light is FIRST processed in the visual system | BEHIND the photoreceptors (wtf!) |
| T or F, Photoreceptors can be activated in the dark. | True |
| In complete darkness/when your eyes are closed, photoreceptors | inhibit bipolar cells from sending a signal to the ganglion cells |
| When there is a stimulus, the membrane of photoreceptors | Hyperpolarizes (go down) |
| When there is a stimulus, the membrane of bipolar cells in the visual system | Depolarize (go up) |
| The function of ganglion cells is to | record action potentials to send to the brain through the optic nerve |
| What is the small area of the retina that provides maximum visual acuity? (the most detailed vision) | The fovea! |
| Why is the fovea better at visual acuity? | Because it contains the most cones in the eye |
| The fovea can also be called the | focal point |
| Are there more rods or cones in the eye? | Rods |
| In the central retina, one____ talks to one_______ which talks to ___ ganglion cell(s) | cone, bipolar cell, one |
| What is the difference between the morphology of the peripheral retina and the central retina? | The central retina has a 1:1:1 ration with information transfer and the peripheral retina communicates through multiple rods and cones to multiple bipolar cells to one ganglion cell |
| There are three types of cones (color) what are they? | red, blue, green |
| Red cones contain | Red opsin |
| Blue cones contain | Blue opsin |
| Green cones contain | Green opsin |
| Helmholtz trichromatic theory | states that the spectrum of color is produced by differentially activating the three types of cones. Activation of all three results in “white”. |
| Day vision requires | cone activity |
| night vision utilizes | rods (very poor color perception at night) |
| An example of humans' light and dark adaptation is | When your eyes gradually adjust to the dark and it gets easier to see |
| What is happening in light adaptation? | your eyes are adapting from the dark to the light to use more cones |
| What is happening in dark adaptation? | your eyes are adapting from the light to the dark to use more rods |
| Only the _____ portion crosses over at the optic chiasm | nasal |
| The LGN is the | Lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus |
| Where is the LGN? | The primary visual cortex |
| The superior colliculus orients you to | movement (reflex response to visual stimulus) |
| The inferior colliculus orients you to | sound (reflex response to auditory stimulus) |
| What is the anatomical pathway for vision in order? | Retina, optic nerve, optic chiasm, superior colliculus or lateral geniculate nucleus |
| Why is vision so important? | It is our remote sensing system |
| What are the two types of cells in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus? | Magnocellular and Parvocellular |
| What is the main relay center for vision? | the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus of the Thalamus |
| What layers of the LGN of the thalamus are Magnocellular cells? | layers 1-2 |
| Why are Magnocellular cells called that? | Because they are LARGE and MAGNO MEANS LARGE |
| What layers of the LGN of the thalamus are Parvocellular cells? | layers 3-6 |
| Magnocellular cells have a _______ receptive field | large |
| What cells from the retina talk to the Magnocellular layer? | rods |
| Magnocellular cells of the LGN are insensitive to | wavelength (color) |
| Parvocellular cells have a _________ receptive field | small |
| Parvocellular cells are sensitive to | color |
| What cells from the retina talk to the Parvocellular layer? | cones |
| The LGN of the thalamus has _____ layers | 6 |
| In development, which cells in the LGN came first, Magnocellular or Parvocellular? | Magnocellular layers 1-2, development goes from in to out |
| Who discovered the Striate Cortex? | David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel in the 1960's! |
| Individual cells will respond if there is a ______ in their visual field. They respond based on _____ and _______. | line, angles, contrast |
| How can we tell the end of shapes? | Because of the contrast on the border |
| Neurons in the visual cortex did not simply respond to light; they | selectively responded to specific features of the visual world |
| The primary visual cortex is called the striate cortex because it is | layered |
| What is cortical blindness? | Blindness caused by damage to the occipital lobe, to be more specific, caused by damage to the optic radiations or primary visual cortex |
| What is blindsight? | Patient grabs the object but they cannot see it. The ability of a person to reach for objects located in their blind field, occurs after damage to the primary visual cortex. |
| What brain region causes a person with cortical blindness to move if a ball is thrown at them? | the superior colliculus!! |
| Why does someone with cortical blindness rely on their superior colliculus? | for primitive vision |
| What are the two visual processing streams in the visual system in the LGN? | Dorsal and ventral stream |
| dorsal visual route in the LGN goes to the _____ lobe | parietal |
| ventral visual route in the LGN goes to the _____ lobe | temporal |
| Ventral stream tells you | What an object is |
| Ventral stream is the ______ pathway | "what" |
| What is Visual Agnosia? | Deficits in visual perception in the absence of blindness |
| What is Agnosia? | The inability to perceive or identify an object by means of a particular sensory modality |
| What is Prosopagnosia? | Failure to recognize specific people by the sight of their faces |
| Dorsal stream is the _______ pathway | "where" |
| What is Akinetopsia? | motion blindness where you have the inability to perceive smooth continuous movement... similar to what you would see under a strobe light |
| What is left visual field neglect? | lack of attention to the left visual field NOT due to the inability to see... this is an attention disorder |
| What is Balints Syndrome caused by? | Caused by bilateral damage to the parieto-occipital region |
| What are the symptoms of Balints Syndrome? | optic ataxia, ocular apraxia, simultanagnosia/ simultaneous agnosia |
| What is optic ataxia? | difficulty reaching for objects under clinical guidance. Patient will overshoot because they cannot determine where the object is in space by looking at it |
| What is ocular ataxia? | Difficulty in visual scanning, this is a motor disorder |
| What is simultanagnosia/ simultaneous agnosia? | difficulty seeing multiple objects if they are laying on top of each other, an issue with perceiving boundaries and contrasts. |
| What is synesthesia? | a higher cortical disorder where certain senses are attatched |
| What is the theory for what causes synesthesia? | a lack of pruning in early childhood (repurposing unneeded neural connections) |
| Object Recognition: Why is it a Hard Problem? | Objects can be recognized over huge variations in appearance and context! |
| What is object constancy? | The ability to recognize objects in many different ways (ie, a closed door and an open door is still a door!) |
| What are some sources of variability in object recognition? | Object position/orientation - Viewer position/orientation - Illumination (wavelength/brightness) - Groupings and context - Occlusion/partial views |
| What is the theory of Geons? | Objects can be described as configurations of a small number of geometrically defined parts (geons) |
| Geons form a | recognition alphabet |
| there are _____ geons for 3-D viewing | 36 |
| What is an example of how geons are constructed? | in an old telephone, the phone, the base, and the dial wheel are all different geons even though there is one object, a phone |
| Bilateral lesion of the ______________ leads to a behavioral deficit in a task that requires the discrimination of objects. | temporal lobe |
| Bilateral lesion of the ___________ leads to a behavioral deficit in a task that requires the discrimination of locations (landmarks). | parietal lobe |
| Visual recognition involves the | inferior temporal cortex |
| The inferior temporal cortex is a network subject to both__________and __________ influences | bottom up, top down |
| Bottom up recognition is __________ driven | feature |
| Top down recognition is ____________ driven | memory |
| Deficits of feature perceptions generally do not cause | an inability to recognize objects |
| Failure of knowledge or recognition | agnosia (visual agnosia) |
| In visual agnosias, __________ and _____________ stay intact | feature processing and memory |
| In visual agnosia, recognition defects are limited to | the visual modality (expression) |
| In visual agnosia, other sensory modalities may | substitute for vision in allowing objects to be recognized (smell and touch) |
| What is apperceptive agnosia? | it is a perceptual deficit that affects visual representations directly. Components of the visual percept are picked up, but cannot be integrated (put together) |
| What do people with apperceptive agnosia really struggle with? | form and unusual views of objects and the ability to recognize degraded stimuli |
| What is integrative agnosia? | when someone is unable to integrate features into a parts, or parts into a whole feature |
| What do people with integrative agnosia really struggle with? | The overlap of objects |
| What is associative agnosia? | When visual representations are intact, but cannot be accessed or used in recognition. |
| What do people with associative agnosia really struggle with? | the meaning of an object |
| The first stage of object categorization is | perceptual |
| The first stage of object categorization (perception) relies on the | right hemisphere |
| The second stage of object categorization is | semantic categorization |
| The second stage of object categorization relies on the | left hemisphere |
| Where is the damage in apperceptive agnosia? | right hemisphere |
| Patients with agnosia following ____-hemisphere lesions have more difficulty with the Incomplete Letters Tasks than do patients with ____-hemisphere lesions, | right has more difficulty than left |
| In the Gollin Incomplete Figures Task patients with right-hemisphere lesions require | more complete drawings in order to identify the objects correctly. |
| What test is used to identify apperceptive agnosia? | the unusual views test where pts must judge whether two photographs taken from different angles are the same object |
| Patients with associative agnosia do well on __________ tests but cannot access ______ or other information about ______ | perceptual, names, objects |
| Agnosics fail to experience | familiarity with the stimulus. |
| When given names of objects, people with associative agnosia | can (generally) give accurate verbal descriptions. |
| What test is used to assess associative agnosia? | The matching by function test, pts are asked to choose two objects that are most similar in function |
| Where is the damage in associative agnosia? | left hemisphere |
| Associative agnosics can copy drawings of objects, but cannot | name them |
| Associative agnosics can draw objects from memory, so internal representation is intact, but then | do not recognize what they had drawn |
| The spared ability to recognize common objects has been attributed to the fact that our visual knowledge is supplemented by | kinesthetic codes developed through our interactions with these objects |
| When a picture of scissors is presented, the visual code may not be sufficient for recognition. When the picture is supplemented with priming of kinesthetic codes, however, the person is able to | name the object |
| Kinesthetic codes are unlikely to exist for | most living things. |
| A patient with a selective deficit for common objects would have difficulty | identifying tools |
| What is prosopagnosia? | The inability to recognize faces |
| What are "grandmother cells?" | The idea that there are a few cells in your head that are dedicated to recognizing your grandmother... in reality, there are many neurons involved in this response including the sensory input cells. |
| Is recognizing faces the what or where pathway? | What |
| Face tells typically do not respond to: | Jumbled faces, partial faces, single components of faces, other significant stimuli |
| Face cells typically do respond to: | Faces anywhere in a large bilateral visual field and faces with reduced feature content like a b+w photo or low contrast |
| Face cell responses vary with: | facial expression, view orientation |
| Associative visual agnosia (prosopagnosia): | Lost ability to recognize familiar faces. Affects previous experience as well as (anterograde component) newly experienced faces. |
| How do patients with prosopagnosia recognize people? | people by their voice, distinctive clothing, hairstyle |
| The fusiform face area is in humans is in the | inferior temporal lobe |
| The fusiform face area is in humans is in the | inferior temporal lobe |
| What is the thatcher effect? | The optical illusion that if you flip certain features of a face and then turn it upside down, the brain will think the face looks correct |
| What is the thatcher effect? | The optical illusion that if you flip certain features of a face and then turn it upside down, the brain will think the face looks correct |
| What is attention? | the process of selecting or focusing on one or more stimuli |
| What is subliminal processing? | brain activity evoked by a stimulus below the threshold for awareness |
| What is subliminal processing? | brain activity evoked by a stimulus below the threshold for awareness |
| What is preconscious awareness? | can detect the stimulus because it is above the threshold of attention, but top-down processing prevents attention (like the humming of the projector) |
| What is conscious awareness? | The stimulus is strong, therefore amplified by top-down processing and attended to |
| bottom-up processing is | reflexive attention |
| top-down processing is | volitional attention |
| Inputs come in, you have a sensory analysis, then it is | processed either consciously or unconsciously where you either attend, or don't attend to conscious stimulus and consciously report |
| What are the two main global states? | Wakefulness and sleep |
| The global wakefulness state consists of | Inattentiveness or being drowsy or relaxed, and alertness |
| The global sleep state consists of | different sleep stages |
| The alertiveness global state consists of | the selective states of ignoring or attending |
| What is overt attention? | occurs when the focus coincides with the sensory orientation (like you're doing a math problem) |
| What is covert attention? | the focus is independent of sensory orientation (like paying attention to your audience as you present something) |
| In covert attention, one can focus attention in a spatial location that is | different from the visual focal point |
| What is covert attention? | focus is independent of sensory orientation (like paying attention to your audience as you present something) |
| In covert attention, one can focus attention in a spatial location that is | different from the visual focal point |
| reflexive attention is | bottom-up |
| voluntary attention is | top-down |
| What is inattentional blindness? | failure to perceive non-attended visual stimuli |
| What is the Cocktail Party effect? | Selective attention filters out stimuli not being attended to. The ability to distinguish conversations in a crowd |
| Explain Cherry's setup for dichotic listening studies (shadowing experiments) | . He presented different auditory information (stories) to each ear of a subject. The subject was asked to “shadow” (immediately repeat) the auditory stimuli from one ear’s input (e.g., shadow the left-ear story and ignore the right-ear inputs). |
| What is the result of Cherry's dichotic listening experiments? | Subjects can report little about the stimuli heard in the non-attended ear. They may be able to determine gender of speaker and whether the audio was highly emotional. |
| What is the attentional bottleneck? | a filter to select only the most important stimuli for processing |
| What do divided attention tasks show? | that attention is a limited resource |
| What is the early-selection model of attention? | filtering occurs at the sensory level and non-attended information never reaches higher-order cognitive processes |
| Some unattended stimuli are __________ of being processed and may _________ _____________ | capable, capture attention |
| What is the late-selection model of attention? | suggests the bottleneck occurs later, after substantial unconscious processing has occurred |
| The cocktail party effect is an example of the: | late-selection model |
| Endogenous means | coming from within |
| Exogenous means | coming from the environment |
| Endogenous attention is | voluntary attention |
| Endogenous attention is a ____________ process | top-down |
| Exogenous attention is a _____________ process | bottom-up |
| Exogenous attention is | reflexive attention |
| Endogenous attention is directed towards | aspects of the environment according to our interests and goals |
| Exogenous attention is the ____________ reorientation of attention towards | involuntary, a sudden or important event. Like when you're mindlessly driving and a child runs into the road, you use endogenous attention to hit the break reflexively |
| Attention may be __________ or _____________ | Endogenous or Exogenous |
| What does the symbolic cuing task measure? | Reaction time when noticing the appearance of a specific target that is preceded by a symbolic cue |
| What does the valid trial of the symbolic cuing task entail? | indicates where the target will appear |
| What does the invalid trial of the symbolic cuing task entail? | the hint given points the wrong way |
| What does the neutral trial of the symbolic cuing task entail? | no hints about location are given to the participant |
| What are the reaction times in the symbolic cuing task from fastest to slowest? | Valid, Neutral, Invalid |
| What are the results of the symbolic cuing task? | Subjects learn to shift their attention in the cued direction, without shifting their gaze |
| Averaging the EEGs during several repeated trials gives the | event-related potential (ERP), also called evoked potential. |
| The early study of neurophysiology on cats recorded from the | cochlear nucleus |
| The early study of neurophysiology on cats show? | When presented with an auditory stimulus and no distraction, there is a spike in ERP, but when presented with an auditory stimulus and a distraction, the ERP does not spike |
| About 100–150 ms after the onset of a ________ stimulus, two large waves appear in the ERP | sound |
| An initial _________-going wave, ___, Immediately followed by a larger __________-going wave, _____ | positive, P1, negative, N1 |
| This auditory N1 ERP effect is strengthened for | selectively attended stimuli |
| The P3 effect occurs _____in the ERP and may reflect ____________. This is an example of the_________________ | later, higher-order processing, late-selection effect |
| attention acts directly on | neurons which boosts their activity |
| When attention is placed on a preferred stimulus within a cell’s receptive field— | neuron fires actively |
| When attention is shifted to an ineffective stimulus within the same receptive field— | neuron fires less, even though the exciting stimulus is still within the receptive field |
| _____________ structures are involved in attention | subcortical |
| What does the superior colliculus do? | orients you to movement. guides movement of eyes toward objects of attention |
| What does the pulvinar do? | it is involved in visual processing, orienting and shifting attention, and filtering stimuli |
| The superior colliculus is important for eye movement, but it also | tells us where objects are at a very primitive level |
| Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) is a | degenerative disease that damages the superior colliculi, impairing gaze control |
| Someone with progressive supranuclear palsy may have | trouble with voluntary eye movement, trouble converging eyes on close-up objects, difficulty with covert attention, and difficulty switching between attentional targets, even without eye movement. |
| Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) is an ____________ deficit. | attentional |
| The dorsal stream is responsible for ____________ attention | endogenous |
| The right-sided ventral system scans for _________ stimuli using what type of attention? | novel, exogenous attention |
| The right-sided ventral system ________ __________ attention. | rapidly reassigns |
| The dorsal stream enhances _____________ and directs ____________ | processing, attention |
| What is hemispatial neglect? | no attention paid to one side of the body or things presented to that side |
| What might a patient with left visual field neglect show? | failure to eat food on the left side of their plate or failure to shave the left side of their face |
| Hemispatial neglect mostly occurs | in the left visual field due to right hemisphere lesions |
| Patients with left visual field neglect will be able to point to both the right and the left visual hemisphere, but | when presented with something in both visual fields or a "distraction" they can only point to things in the right visual field |
| Where does the brain naturally have an attentional bias? | Rightward attentional bias |
| If you're focusing on something in your right visual field, you are | inhibiting your right hemisphere |
| Why is left visual field spatial neglect more common than right visual field spatial neglect? | Because there is already a stronger attentional bias towards the right. When the right hemisphere is lesioned, the crossed inhibition of the right onto the left is removed. The result is a rightward attentional bias |
| Parietal lobe controls the | spatial orientation of objects |
| Bilateral lesions of parietal lobe may cause | Balint’s syndrome |
| Oculomotor ataxia is | difficulty steering gaze |
| Optic ataxia is | inability to accurately reach for objects using visual guidance |
| Simultagnosia is | profound restriction of attention to one object at a time |
| Humans do visual searches to find | specific objects of interest involve attention |
| A feature search is | a search in which the target pops out right away due to a unique attribute |
| A conjunction search is | a search based on two or more features that together distinguish the target |
| Phonemes are | the smallest unit of sound in a word (in a word - cat) |
| Morphemes are | The basic unit of meaning (what does cat mean?) |
| Semantic irregularities are | when the sentence doesn't make sense |
| Syntactic errors are | grammatical errors (noun instead of a verb) |
| Aphasia is | difficulty in producing or comprehending speech not produced by deafness of motor deficits |
| Aphasia is NOT influenced by | deafness of motor deficits |
| What is the Broca's area? | Region of the frontal cortex that is necessary for normal speech production |
| Where is Broca's area? | Region of the frontal lobe that is located ROSTRAL to the base of the LEFT PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX |
| What is Broca's aphasia? | a form of aphasia where the pt has agrammatism, anomia, and extreme difficulty with speech articulation |
| What is agrammatism? | difficulty in COMPREHENDING or PROPERLY EMPLOYING grammatical devices, such as verb endings and word order |
| What is anomia? | difficulty in finding (remembering) the appropriate word to describe an object, action, or attribute |
| What is apraxia in relation to speech? | Impairment of the ability to program movements of the tongue, lips, and throat that are required to produce the proper sequence of speech sounds |
| What is "telegraphic speech?" | Fragmented speech with the fewest amount of words possible... caveman like |
| Someone with Broca's aphasia would have issues with | speech articulation and a hard time understanding reversible sentences (ie, boy hit girl, when the sentence means girl hit boy.) |
| What is the Wernicke's area? | It is important for word comprehension and production of meaningful speech |
| Where is Wernicke's area? | Region of the auditory association cortex on the left temporal lobe of humans |
| What is Wernicke's aphasia? | Aphasia characterized by poor speech comprehension and fluent but meaningless speech |
| What is pure word deafness? | the ability to hear, speak, and (usually) read and write without being able to comprehend the meaning of speech |
| Pure word deafness is caused by damage to the | wernicke's area |
| Pure word deafness is also called | auditory agnosia |
| What is transcortical sensory aphasia? | difficulty comprehending speech and producing meaningful spontaneous speech |
| Transcortical sensory aphasia patients CAN | repeat speech |
| Transcortical sensory aphasia is caused by damage to the | posterior language area (sorta behind wernicke's area) |
| Wernicke's aphasia is caused by damage to the | Wernicke's area and the posterior language area |
| What does Genie's case show? | That there is a window of opportunity for language |
| What were Genie's symptoms? | Genie could comprehend language, but she would never be able to speak in full grammatically correct sentences |
| If you have no experience with grammar ______ area remains relatively hard to change: you cannot learn grammatical language production later on in life. | Broca's |
| the abilities to understand language and produce language in ways that do not rely on grammar largely make use of ___________ area in the temporal lope. This area is capable of expanding and rewiring throughout life | Wernicke's |
| What is autotopagnosia? | The inability to name body parts or to identify body parts that another person names |
| Someone with conduction aphasia can't | repeat words that are heard |
| Someone with conduction aphasia can | speak normally and comprehend the speech of others |
| What is the arcuate fasciculus? | a bundle of axons that connects Wernicke's area to the Broca's area |
| Conduction aphasia is caused by damage to the | arcuate fasciculus |
| What is pure alexia? | The loss of the ability to read, but not the loss of the ability to write |
| When reading and writing, someone with aphasia will | have similar outcomes to that of their speaking and comprehending abilities |
| Whole word reading is when someone reads by | recognizing the word as a whole, like you can't sound out a word, you just know what it says |
| Phonetic reading is when someone reads by | decoding the phonetic significance of letter strings... sound reading |
| What does the visual word-form area do? | plays a critical role in whole word recognition |
| Where is the visual word-form area? | It is a region of the fusiform gyrus on the base of the temporal lobe |
| What is surface dyslexia? | a reading disorder in which a person can read words phonetically, but has difficulty reading irregularly spelled words by the whole-word method |
| What is phonological dyslexia? | a reading disorder in which a person can read familiar words, but had difficulty reading unfamiliar words or pronounceable nonwords |
| Whole word reading happens in what brain area? | the visual word-form area |
| Comprehension of speech happens where? | the inferior frontal cortex |
| Developmental dyslexia is when | someone who has normal intelligence and ability has issues learning to read |
| Developmental dyslexia can be caused by | genetic origins or prenatal or perinatal factors |
| Direct dyslexia is | a language disorder that is caused by brain damage in which the person can read words aloud without understanding them |
| Could a split brain patient say a word that is presented to their left hemisphere? | No, because visual information cannot reach the left hemisphere for processing |
| N400 is a brain wave that relates to | linguistic processes (semantic irregularities... the sentence doesn't make sense) |
| In a brain wave, N is equal to the | negative polarity voltage peak |
| In brain waves, 400 is equal to the | wave that occurs approximately 400ms after onset of the presentation of the word |
| N400 waves are modality independent, which means that they are | present in all languages, and in deaf people using ASL |
| P600 waves display | syntactic errors (grammar) |
| Typos show up on EEGs as | P600 waves |
| N waves go ____ and they are ______ P waves go _____ and they are ______ | up, negative, down, positive |
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