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Exam 1 - SOCY 101
contains Topics 1-4(ish)
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Founding Fathers of Sociology | Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber |
| Karl Mark's conflict perspective & its implications | All societies are based on social conflict, a struggle between groups that have differing interests and needs. The basis of this was the ownership and distribution of goods and resources or 'economic relationships'. |
| Emile Durkheim’s distinction of mechanical solidarity | Durkheim defines mechanic solidarity as older and simpler societies, where all parts are intricately connected, society is extremely cohesive, and people are highly integrated with one another. |
| Emile Durkheim’s distinction of organic solidarity | Organic solidarity is a more complex version of mechanic solidarity, where some members are only distantly connected to one another, but still increasingly rely on each other. |
| Social Exchange Perspective | Contributed by George Homans & Peter Blau "social interactions are guided by cost-benefit analyses of payoffs; people weigh rewards vs. punishments in each interaction (ex. choosing to accept an invite to a romantic date) |
| Symbolic Interactionism Perspective | Contributed by Irving Goffman & James Cooley "people create shared meanings for identities, behaviors, and objects through everyday interactions" (ex. "a bf should kiss his gf and not another random person") |
| Functionalism Perspective | Contributed by Emile Durkheim & Talcott Persons "conceives of society as a stable system of interconnected parts working together, like organs in the body" (ex. crime is "necessary" for the purpose of government and common law) |
| Conflict Perspective | Contributed by Karl Marx "conceives of society as shapped by ongoing power struggles between dominant and subordinate groups (esp. from differing classes)" (ex. Racial discrimination, gender equality) |
| Perspective vs. Theory | Theory refers to any testable argument, hypothesis, etc., while Perspective refers to one's personal attitude towards something |
| What does it mean for "sociology" to be a science? | Sociology utilizes its own unique form of scientific method to study social phenomena, relying on systematic observation, data collection, and analysis to understand patterns and trends within humans |
| "Sociological Imagination" | the capacity to think about our own personal experience in relation to larger social forces that influence every aspect of our lives, whether they are visible to us or not. (Blalock 1962~Black athletes experiment) |
| Hindsight Bias | the tendency for one to think they could have easily predicted an outcome that they have already been exposed to |
| Logical fallacies | an error in reasoning or an invalid argument that may appear convincing but is flawed when examined closely |
| Risk reducing assumptions | how social factors impact how people perceive and respond to risk |
| Socialization and institutions | Socialization is the process of learning and internalizing the norms, values, and beliefs of a society. Institution is the organized system of social norms |
| Using grounds, warrants, and conclusions in argumentation | Grounds refers to evidence or facts used to support a claim. Warrants are the underlying assumptions or reasoning that connects grounds to claims. Conclusions (aka claims) are the final statement being argued for. |
| How sociology arose from the industrial revolution and enlightenment thought? | The Industrial revolution brought uprooting, urbanization, and industrialized labor; formed new social classes (blue collar v. white collar); Enlightenment came with an emphasis on "reason" and a curiosity about the essence of human nature. |
| Qualitative vs quantitative research | Quantitative sacrifices deep understanding of each case to make broad descriptive or causal claims about a population. Qualitative sacrifices ability to generalize findings to a wider population to have richer insights about the cases of interest. |
| Experiments | studies that randomly assign an independent variable (i.e., treatment) to a subset of a sample to measure the effects of it; Pro: Relationship between IV/DV not affected by extraneous var. Cons: Small experiment often lack external validity (expensive). |
| Surveys | Asking people to respond to items (questions) that corresponding to the concepts you are studying. Pros: can be used when experiments are unethical, affordable. Cons: hard to answer "why" questions, social desirability bias |
| Participant Observation/ Field Reasearch | the researcher spends time among a group, directly observing and participating in that social world. Pros: Rich data, Insider's view. Cons: little control-not useful to make causal arguments |
| Why “experiments” and “randomized controlled trials” are the gold standard for causal research? | Most social question people want to know the answers to- and misinterpret statistics about- are "causal" questions. |
| Independent & Dependent Variables | Independent variables are variables manipulated by external factors, while dependent variables are variables that become the result of these factors. |
| Internal Validity vs. External validity | Internal validity refers to researchers getting at the relationship they think they're getting. External validity refers to an experiment's findings being able to "stand" in real world conditions. |
| Mundane & Experimental Realism | Mundane realism is the real-worldish-ness of the experimental conditions. Experimental realism is the engagement and drive investment (interesting/sense of importance). |
| Reliability | Consistency of measurements |
| Cross-sectional vs Longitudinal surveys | Cross-sectional surveys are ONE-TIME surveys, while Longitudinal surveys deal with the same people, same questions, at multiple time points; Longitudinal survey are also better for causal research questions |
| Items, Constructs, and Instruments (Survey design parts) | Items are questions on an instrument (set of questions) that respondents answer to provide data for variables being studied. Constructs are the batches of items that measure one "thing". |
| Types of questions to ask/not ask (surveys) | ASK a) what people have done and b) how they feel... DONT ASK a) why people do things or b) what they'll do |
| Ethical principles for Human research | Participant Confidentiality, Voluntary Participation, and Harm and Deception (Respondents not aware of the researcher's true motive of identity) |
| How Kramer and Humphreys' studies violated research ethics | Kramer Co. manipulated the feeds of unknowing users to monitor their behavior and reactions toward positive vs. negative content. Humphreys' Tearoom Trade Study involved closeted married men in gay lounges engaging romantically to study them. |
| Spurious Correlation | When a third variable actually explains the apparent connection between two variables (in research). (ex. COVID-19>>Screentime/Clinical Depression Study, 2020) |
| Reverse Causality | When the "effect" is actually causing the "cause", and not the other way around. |
| What did Kramer et al. find? (referring to other Kramer card) | People who saw less positive content made less positive content; those who saw more positive content made more positive content. This was causal evidence for emotion contagion. |
| Status, Roles, Groups, Networks, and Institutions (Types of Structure) | Status (societal rank), Roles (status/identity expectations), Groups (rules and norms), Networks (reach and influence), and Institutions (all of the above) |
| Compare & Contrast: Status and Roles/Role identities | Social Status is a socially determined position of a person or a group within a large society. Social Role is a set of expectations that about the behavior and attitudes of people from a particular social status (or institution). |
| Effect of Roles on perception and behavior | Inconsistency between two or more role we fill can cause role conflict. This conflict can cause us to have to choose between relationships, morals, and even make drastic decisions that can affect our life and others. (e.g. Pledge Night in a Frat) |
| Achieved vs Ascribed Status | An achieved status results in part by your efforts, occupation, education level, class, and marital status for example. An ascribed status is assigned to you by society usually at birth, like race, ethnicity, sex, and age. |
| Effects of Status on perception and attainment | More negative social perceptions are likely to cause more negative self-perception. An example of this is the "Good Hair vs. Bad Hair" ideology within the black community, where more malleable hair is seen as "better" than thicker course hair. |
| How Structures can provide us with Rules and Constraints, as well as Resources and Opportunity | Structures like Groups provide Norms (rules and expectations that guide members' behaviors and perspectives) and Resources (social supports) to help members interact within and externally on a daily basis (ex. campus organizations). |
| Norms (more specifically) | behavioral rules that define what's expected, accepted, and/or prohibited ("normal"); They come from two examples: Intentional design (to solve cooperation problems) and Unintentional consequences (to solve individual adopted problems ) |
| How do people respond to Norm Violations? | People tend to react negatively towards those who break norms (ex. "Killing Vegans" comment ~Sitwell vs. Nelson) |
| Proscriptive Norms | They relate to Laws and policies, such as legal driving practices, Not killing people without warrant (self-defense), wearing clothes in public, etc.) |
| Descriptive vs. Injunctive Norms | Descriptive Norms is the info on what other people are doing, while Injunctive norm engages in how the reader/subject should feel about the descriptive norm. An example of this is the persuasive mailers sent on Neighborhood electric usage (Alcott 2011) |
| Institutions (more specifically) | Central domains of social life that guide behaviors and meet our basic social needs. Institutions ascribe status, construct roles, establish groups, and facilitate human network ties. (ex. religion, family, politics, education, etc.) |
| Pluralistic Ignorance (PI) | When almost every member of a group privately rejects a norm but believes that virtually every other accepts it (aka "we listen, and we don't judge"). The root of this is discrepancy btw public action & private sentiment. (ex. opinions on 1-Night stands) |
| Agency (and what sociologists think abt it) | Agency is our ability as individuals to believe and behave independently. Its influence on Soc. Structure: PI -> false enforcement -> unwanted norms/rules |
| Micro-sociology | research that focuses on individual identities and small-scale interactions with others (ex. Symbolic Interaction (check term)) |
| Problem of Social Order? | "In the face of individual interests, how does stable groups and societies arise?" |
| Hobbes' theory on "Social Order problem" | "We'd pursue self-interest at all costs if not stopped"; Interdependence and "Social dilemmas" : conflict of self + collective interest; Govt.: prevents nat. chaos, protect & secure |
| Smith's theory on "Social Order problem" | pursuit of self-interest can work to the advantage of the whole; "Inherent in humans is "the propensity to truck, barter, and exchange"" (pg 18); Govt.: protecting nat. rights and liberties, enforcing public contracts, providing public goods, etc. |
| Prisoner's Dilemma (and Valentine's and Chicken) | You and ___ commit a crime, detained, the police don't have enough evidence, in separate cells you have to choose to a) rat or b) remain silent; if both remain silent (1 yr each), if you rat (they get 10 yr), they rat (you get 10), both rat (both 6 yr) |
| On-shot exchange vs. Repeated Exchange | People pick partners to reduce uncertainty in exchange (?); ex. emotional commitments (Chawler et al. 2001) |
| 'Tit-for-tat' efficiency | 4 forms: Nice (never 1st to defect; golden rule) avoids unnecessary conflict; Retaliatory (eye 4 eye) gets back immediately; Forgiving (turn other cheek) not grudge-based; Clear (Religious symbolism) reduces uncertainty in others |
| When is it more "rational" to cooperate rather than defect? | Tit-for-tat, Reputations, Norms and Sanctions, Motivational Solutions (ex. "altruism", concern for others) |
Created by:
cmh66
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