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COG NEURO EXAM 1
Gazzaniga Ch 1-4
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Proposed that brain damage could affect behavior, suggesting the cerebral cortex as the seat of human cognition. | Thomas Willis (1600s) |
| Developed phrenology, a now-debunked theory that skull shape correlated with personality traits. | Franz Gall (1700s) |
| Discovered Broca’s area, linking brain lesions in the left frontal lobe to language production deficits. | Paul Broca (1800s) |
| Identified Wernicke’s area, connecting posterior brain lesions to language comprehension issues. | Carl Wernicke (1800s) |
| Established the neuron doctrine, proving that neurons are individual units of brain function. | Ramón y Cajal (1800s–1900s): |
| Proposed Hebbian learning, the idea that “neurons that fire together, wire together,” foundational to understanding synaptic plasticity. | Donald Hebb (1900s) |
| What is the Localization Theory? | Debate over whether specific brain areas control certain functions |
| What is associationism? | Early learning theory suggesting that responses followed by rewards are reinforced. |
| What is Cognitive Neuroscience? | Bridging psychology and neuroscience with modern brain imaging techniques. |
| Developed the Golgi stain, allowing visualization of neurons. | Camillo Golgi |
| Used Golgi’s stain to argue that neurons are discrete cells. | Ramón y Cajal |
| Coined the term synapse and described neuronal communication. | Charles Sherrington |
| Maintain the blood-brain barrier and regulate neurotransmitters. | Astrocytes |
| Act as the brain’s immune system, removing debris and dead neurons. | Microglial Cells |
| Form the myelin sheath in the CNS, which speeds up neuronal communication. | Oligodendrocytes |
| Main excitatory neurotransmitter | Glutamate |
| Main inhibitory neurotransmitter | GABA |
| Controls voluntary movements (e.g., skeletal muscles). | Somatic Nervous System |
| Regulates involuntary functions (e.g., heart rate, digestion). | Autonomic Nervous System |
| “Fight or flight” response generated from | Sympathetic Nervous System |
| “Rest and digest” response generated from | Parasympathetic Nervous System |
| The relay center for sensory and motor signals. | Thalamus: |
| Regulates the autonomic nervous system, hormones, and homeostasis. | Hypothalamus |
| the outermost layer of the brain, responsible for higher cognition. | The cerebral cortex |
| The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes: | Frontal Lobe, Parietal Lobe, Occipital Lobe, Temporal Lobe |
| Decision-making, motor control, speech (Broca’s area) are controlled by what lobe? | Frontal Lobe |
| which lobe handles Sensory integration, spatial awareness. | Parietal Lobe |
| Vision processing. | Occipital Lobe |
| Auditory processing, memory, language (Wernicke’s area). | Temporal Lobe |
| Crucial for emotion and memory, includes amygdala and hippocampus | The limbic system |
| Creation of new connections between neurons. | Synaptogenesis |
| The brain’s ability to reorganize and adapt. | Plasticity |
| What do astrocytes do? | Maintain the blood-brain barrier and regulate neurotransmitters. |
| function as the immune defense of the brain. | Microglial Cells |
| form myelin in the PNS | Schwann Cells |
| Receptor involved in chemical transmission that open when neurotransmitters bind. | Ligand-Gated Ion Channels |
| Receptor involved in chemical transmission that indirectly trigger changes in the cell. | G-Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) |
| How do ions flow directly between neurons in chemical transmission? | gap junctions |
| What does cognitive psychology study? | Mental processes as information-processing problems. |
| How do cognitive psychologists study the mind? | By manipulating inputs and analyzing behavioral outputs. |
| What is an example of a cognitive psychology experiment? | Scrambled text studies showing whole-word recognition, STROOP test |
| What are mental representations? | Internal depictions of objects, concepts, or sensory inputs. |
| What does reaction time measure in cognitive tasks? | The speed of cognitive processing. |
| What is the Stroop task, and what does it assess? | A task where word meaning and ink color conflict; measures attention control. |
| What is the Lexical Decision Task? | A task where participants judge whether a string of letters is a word. |
| What is the serial position effect? | The tendency to remember first and last items in a list. |
| What is priming? | When prior exposure to a stimulus influences response speed or accuracy. |
| What are internal transformations in cognitive psychology? | The ways in which the brain manipulates and interprets sensory input. |
| Variables other than the independent variable that may influence the dependent variable and can lead to inaccurate conclusions | extraneous variables |
| What is top-down processing? | Perception influenced by expectations and prior knowledge. |
| What is bottom-up processing? | Perception based on raw sensory input. |
| Why are double-blind studies important in cognitive research? | They eliminate experimenter and participant bias. |
| What is change blindness? | Failure to detect large changes in a visual scene. |
| What is Broca’s aphasia? | A language disorder affecting speech production due to left frontal damage. |
| What is Wernicke’s aphasia? | A disorder affecting language comprehension, linked to the left temporal lobe. |
| What does a single dissociation demonstrate? | That a specific brain area affects one function but not another. |
| What does a double dissociation show? | That two distinct brain regions control different functions. |
| What is prosopagnosia? | The inability to recognize faces due to damage in the fusiform gyrus. |
| What is anterograde amnesia? | The inability to form new memories after brain damage. |
| What is retrograde amnesia? | The loss of old memories due to brain damage. |
| What is the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test used for? | Assessing cognitive flexibility and frontal lobe function. |
| How does transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) aid rehabilitation? | It enhances neural plasticity and recovery. |
| What is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)? | A technique that uses magnetic fields to temporarily disrupt or enhance brain activity. |
| What is transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)? | A method that uses weak electrical currents to modulate brain activity. |
| How does tDCS differ from TMS? | tDCS uses continuous electrical currents, while TMS applies magnetic pulses. |
| What is optogenetics? | A technique that uses light to control genetically modified neurons. It provides precise control over neural activity. |
| What is deep brain stimulation (DBS)? | A treatment that delivers electrical pulses to deep brain structures. |
| How is DBS used clinically? | It is used to treat Parkinson’s disease, depression, and epilepsy. |
| What are agonist drugs? | Drugs that enhance neurotransmitter activity. |
| What are antagonist drugs? | Drugs that block neurotransmitter activity. |
| How do benzodiazepines affect the brain? | They enhance GABA, leading to sedative and anxiolytic effects. |
| How does L-DOPA affect the brain? | It increases dopamine levels to treat Parkinson’s disease. |
| What is the effect of SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors)? | They block the reuptake of serotonin which increases serotonin levels to treat depression. |
| What is a knockout mouse model? | A genetically modified mouse in which a specific gene is deactivated. |
| What is repetitive TMS (rTMS)? | A technique that applies repeated magnetic pulses to alter brain function over time. |
| How does TMS help in treating depression? | It stimulates the prefrontal cortex to regulate mood. |
| What ethical concerns exist with brain stimulation techniques? | Potential long-term effects, safety, and misuse of cognitive enhancement. |
| What is Computed Tomography (CT)? | A brain imaging method that uses X-rays to create detailed images. |
| What is a limitation of CT scans? | They have lower resolution than MRI and involve radiation exposure. |
| How does Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) work? | It uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed brain images. |
| What is an advantage of MRI over CT? | MRI provides higher-resolution images without radiation exposure. |
| What is Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)? | An MRI-based method that maps white matter pathways. It measures the movement of water molecules along axons. |
| What is the corpus callosum, and why is it important? | A bundle of fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres. |
| What is voxel-based morphometry (VBM)? | A technique used to measure brain volume differences. |
| How does structural MRI contribute to studying brain disorders? | It helps identify structural abnormalities in conditions like Alzheimer's. |
| What is a limitation of MRI? | It only provides structural information, not brain activity. |
| What is the function of gray matter? | It contains neuron cell bodies and is involved in processing. |
| What is the function of white matter? | It consists of myelinated axons that facilitate communication. |
| What is cortical thickness, and why is it measured? | It reflects the density of neurons in the cortex, linked to intelligence and aging. |
| How does brain atrophy appear on MRI? | As a reduction in brain volume, often seen in neurodegenerative diseases. |
| What is hydrocephalus? | A condition where excess cerebrospinal fluid causes brain swelling. |
| What is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)? | A fluid that cushions and nourishes the brain. |
| What is white matter hyperintensity (WMH)? | Small lesions in the brain linked to aging and cognitive decline. |
| How does traumatic brain injury (TBI) affect brain structure? | It can cause bruising, swelling, and white matter damage. |
| What is brain plasticity, and how is it studied? | The brain’s ability to reorganize itself; studied using structural MRI. |
| What is magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS)? | A technique that measures brain metabolism and neurotransmitters. |
| What is single-cell recording? | A method that measures electrical activity from an individual neuron. |
| How does electrocorticography (ECoG) work? | Electrodes are placed directly on the brain's surface to measure neural activity. |
| What is Electroencephalography (EEG)? | A method that records electrical activity from the scalp using electrodes. |
| What are the advantages of EEG? | It has high temporal resolution and is non-invasive. |
| What is the main disadvantage of EEG? | Poor spatial resolution compared to MRI or fMRI. |
| What is Magnetoencephalography (MEG)? | A technique that measures magnetic fields produced by neural activity. |
| How does MEG compare to EEG? | MEG has better spatial resolution but is more expensive. |
| What is an Event-Related Potential (ERP)? | A brain response to a specific stimulus, measured using EEG. The average of many EEG recordings. |
| What is intracranial recording? | A technique where electrodes are implanted directly inside the brain. |
| What is the spatial resolution of EEG? | Low, because it detects activity from large populations of neurons. |
| What is the main clinical use of EEG? | Diagnosing epilepsy and sleep disorders. |
| How do researchers improve EEG spatial resolution? | By using dense electrode arrays or advanced signal processing. |
| What is the difference between spiking activity and local field potentials (LFPs)? | Spiking activity comes from individual neurons, while LFPs represent summed activity. |
| What is multi-unit recording? | A method that records from multiple neurons simultaneously. |
| How does ECoG differ from EEG? | ECoG has better spatial resolution because it records directly from the brain surface. |
| What is the resting-state network, and how is it studied? | A set of brain regions active when at rest, studied using EEG, MEG, and fMRI. |
| What are the challenges of MEG? | It requires expensive shielding and is sensitive to head movements. |
| What is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)? | A technique that measures brain activity based on blood flow changes. |
| What is the BOLD signal in fMRI? | Blood Oxygenation Level Dependent signal, which reflects neural activity. |
| How does fMRI compare to EEG? | fMRI has better spatial resolution but worse temporal resolution. |
| What is the main limitation of fMRI? | It only provides an indirect measure of neural activity. |
| What is Positron Emission Tomography (PET)? | A technique that uses radioactive tracers to measure metabolism in the brain. |
| How does PET differ from fMRI? | PET directly measures metabolic activity but has lower resolution. |
| What is functional connectivity analysis in fMRI? | It examines correlations in brain activity between different regions. |
| What is a block design in fMRI experiments? | A method where tasks are grouped into time blocks for analysis. |
| What is an event-related design in fMRI? | A method where individual trials are analyzed separately. |
| How does arterial spin labeling (ASL) improve fMRI? | It provides better quantification of cerebral blood flow. |
| What are the disadvantages of PET scans? | They involve radiation exposure and have poor temporal resolution. |
| What is multimodal imaging, and why is it important? | The combination of different imaging techniques to improve analysis. |
| What is the difference between structural and functional imaging? | Structural imaging looks at brain anatomy, functional imaging looks at activity. |
| What is task-based fMRI? | A method where brain activity is measured while performing a specific task. |
| What does fNIRS (functional near-infrared spectroscopy) measure? | Changes in oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin in the brain. |
| Why is fNIRS useful for infants? | It is non-invasive and portable, making it ideal for studying babies. |
| What is a limitation of BOLD fMRI? | It lags behind actual neural activity by a few seconds. |
| What is functional connectivity? | The correlation between activity in different brain regions. |
| What is structural connectivity? | The physical pathways connecting different brain regions. |
| What is effective connectivity? | The influence one neural system exerts over another. |
| What is Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)? | An MRI-based method that maps white matter pathways via the movement of water molecules |
| the idea that each hemisphere of the brain is specialized for different functions. | Lateralization of function |
| Each hemispheres is connected to the __________side of the body. | contralateral (opposite) |
| connects the anterior parts of the cerebral cortex. | Anterior commissure |
| - connects the left and right hippocampus. | Hippocampal commissure |
| In most humans the left side is specialized for | language |
| an area of the temporal cortex that is larger in the left hemisphere in 65% of people. | The planum temporale |
| Damage to left hemisphere often results in | language deficiencies. |
| Light from the left visual field shines onto the _____ half of both retinas. | right |
| Light from the right half of the visual field shines into the ____ half of both retinas | left |
| Half of the axons from each eye cross to the opposite side of the brain at the | optic chiasm |
| People who have undergone surgery to the corpus callosum are referred to as | split-brain patients |
| Split brain people maintain normal intellect and motivation but they tend to | Use hands independently in a way others cannot. Respond differently to stimuli presented to only one side of the body. |
| In split brain patients, the smaller commissures that are still connected result in | Smaller commissures allow a slower response. The brain later learns to use the smaller connections |
| Who revealed subtle behavioral differences for spilt brain people? | Sperry (1974) |
| Because the left side of the brain is dominant for language in most people, most split-brain people: | Have difficulty naming objects briefly viewed in the left visual field. |
| Hand dominance is a sign of what? | The brain's asymmetry |
| ______ hemisphere is better at perceiving emotions. | Right |
| Damage to parts of the right hemisphere causes | difficulty perceiving other’s emotions, failure to understand humor and sarcasm, and results in a monotone voice. |
| Left hemisphere damage increases ability to | accurately judge emotion. |
| Why does the left hemisphere damage increase the function of the right hemishpere? | Decreased interference, patient becomes less fearful and more in tune with emotions |
| Voluntary facial expressions controlled by | the left hemisphere |
| involuntary/spontaneous facial expressions are controlled by | left AND right hemisphere |
| The hemisphere that is better at recognizing self | Left |
| The hemisphere that is better at recognizing familiar others | Right |
| photosensitive protein channel which depolarize the membrane when blue light is presented (nonspecific cation channel) | Channelrhodopsin (ChR2 Ion Channels) |
| A process where photosensitive proteins are inserted into neural membranes by means of genetically modified viruses. Specific wavelengths of light are then capable of altering the membrane potential. | Photostimulation |
| photosensitive protein channel which hyperpolarizes the membrane when yellow light is presented (pumps Cl- into cell) | Halorhodopsin (NpHR Ion Transporter) |
| What are Sternberg's stages of Memory ? | 1. Encode – identify the target 2. Compare - compare target with mental representation of letter set (working memory) 3. Decide – yes or no 4. Respond – verbal or motor |
| What process does memory use? | serial process |
| An alternating current of a very high frequency capable of destroying neural tissue…….total tissue damage | Electrolytic lesion |
| A brain lesion produced by i.c. injection of an excitatory amino acid…passing fibers..ok!! | Excitotoxic Lesion |
| A brain lesion produced by i.c. injection of a Na+ channel blocker….lidocaine……ABA design | Temporary Lesion |
| a brain lesion produced by injection of a toxin (MPTP – kills dopamine cells in substantia nigra) | Chemical Lesion |
| A placebo procedure that duplicates all the steps of producing a brain lesion except the one that actually causes the brain damage. | Sham Lesion |
| electrodes used to record the electrical activity of large numbers of neurons in a particular region of the brain. | Macroelectrodes |
| an electrical brain potential recorded by placing electrodes on the scalp. | Electroencephalogram (EEG) |
| a procedure that detects groups of synchronously activated neurons by means of the magnetic field induced by their electrical activity. Higher spatial resolution than EEG | Magnetoencephalography (MEG) |
| N100 wave | sensory processing and selective attention |
| N200 wave | executive cognitive control (go/nogo) |
| P300 wave | discrimination; identifying oddball |
| N400 wave | language; large response to grammar errors |
| What is the main difference between an ion channel and an ion pump? | Ion channels use the passive transport while Ion pumps use active transport |
| True or false. There’s more K+ outside the cell during resting potential | False |
| What charge is the resting potential? | - 70mV |
| What charge is the threshold of excitation? | -55mV |
| What comprises the membrane? | A lipid bilayer, including proteins, ion channels/pumps such as Na/K pumps. |
| What allows the action potential to regenerate down the axon at the nodes of Ranvier? | Voltage gated ion channels |
| What is the absolute refractory period? | A period of hyperpolarization where no action potentials can be generated |
| Which term best fits the following definition: The membrane potential at which there is no net flux of a given ion. | Equilibrium Potential |
| What occurs in the membrane during depolarization? (Ion channel?) | Na+ channels open |
| What occurs in the membrane during hyperpolarization? | K+ channels open |
| What is the difference between EPSP and IPSP? | EPSP increases the likelihood of a postsynaptic action potential occurring, while IPSP decreases the likelihood. |
| increases the likelihood of a postsynaptic action potential occurring | EPSP |
| decreases the likelihood of a postsynaptic action potential occurring | IPSP |
| _______is the most permeable ion that can pass through the membrane. | Potassium |
| Ion channels are most dense in the | Spike-triggering zone in the axon hillock |
| What is the axon hillock? | The region where the axon emerges and the part of the neuron where the action potential generates |
| What is the purpose of myelin? | It causes the action potential to travel faster |
| What direction does the sodium-potassium pump move both sodium and potassium ions? | Against their concentration gradient |
| Why can the action potential regenerate itself? | Voltage gated ion channels |
| What causes ions to move across cell membranes? | Diffusion, electrostatic pressure |
| What channel is mostly responsible for keeping the membrane at resting potential? | Leaky K+ channels |
| What is saltatory conduction? | The transmission of an AP along a myelinated axon, propagating it faster |
| What ion channel is not found in the axon? | Ca2+ channels |
| What’s the difference between passive and gated ion channels? | Passive are always open and gated are only open if activated |
| True or False: The intensity of depolarization is directly related to the size of the action potential. | False |
| What’s the difference between electrical and chemical stimuli? | Electrical travel through gap junctions, while chemical use neurotransmitters |
| How does an astrocyte make contact with blood vessels to transport ions across the vascular wall? | through projections called end feet |
| What do microglia do? | Phagocytose damaged cells |
| what do glial cells form? | myelin |
| Which glial cell myelinates in the peripheral nervous system? | schwann cells |
| Which glial cell myelinates in the central nervous system? | oligodendrocytes |
| self regeneration of the action potential through ion channels happens where? | nodes of ranvier |
| What does the "all or none" phenomenon mean? | Action potentials are always the same amplitude. |
| What is an action potential? | A rapid depolarization and repolarization of the membrane caused by opening and closing ion channels |
| why is an action potential preferred over an epsp? | Action potentials can travel for meters with no loss in signal. |
| Which ion contributes the most to AP formation? | Na+ |
| What is the "jumping" that an action potential does called? | saltatory conduction |
| hyperpolarized means more ________ membrane | negative |
| depolarized means more ________ membrane | positive |
| Why do we even care about Phrenology??? | because it was the first ever theory to describe localization of function!! |
| difference between MRI and fMRI | MRI does structure and fMRI does function |
| What is the BOLD signal in fMRI? | Blood Oxygenation Level Dependent signal, which reflects neural activity. |
| What is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)? | A technique that measures brain activity based on blood flow changes. |
| How does PET differ from fMRI? | PET directly measures metabolic activity but has lower resolution. |
| What is Positron Emission Tomography (PET)? | A technique that uses radioactive tracers to measure metabolism in the brain. |
| What is the difference between structural and functional imaging? | Structural imaging looks at brain anatomy, functional imaging looks at activity. |
| What is computational neuroscience? | The use of mathematical models to study brain function. |
| How do artificial neural networks help neuroscience? | They simulate brain function and learning processes. |
| What is a spiking neuron model? | A mathematical representation of how neurons communicate. |
| What is a Bayesian model | A Bayesian model is a statistical model where you use probability to represent all uncertainty within the model (input and output) |
| How does Bayesian modeling apply to neuroscience? | It describes how the brain makes probability decisions. |
| Lesions show ______ effects, while imaging shows ________. | causal, correlations |
| What is hemispheric specialization? | The idea that the left and right hemispheres of the brain have specialized functions. |
| What is the role of the corpus callosum? | It connects the two hemispheres and facilitates interhemispheric communication. |
| What is the Wada test used for? | To determine long/short term memory and language dominance in the brain before surgery. |
| Why use the Wada test if language is always on the left? | Because that may not be true for everyone, especially left handed people! |
| Pyramidal neurons in the _____ hemisphere are more widely spaced than in the ______. | left, right |
| What function is the right hemisphere generally more specialized for? | Spatial processing and visual-motor tasks. |
| What is the anterior commissure? | A smaller white matter tract connecting the two hemispheres, primarily linking temporal lobes. |
| What happens when the corpus callosum is damaged? | It disrupts communication between the hemispheres, leading to split-brain symptoms. |
| Who conducted pioneering research on split-brain patients? | Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga |
| What is a common effect observed in split-brain patients? | The inability to verbally describe objects presented in the left visual field |
| Why do split-brain patients struggle to name objects seen in the left visual field? | The right hemisphere processes the image but cannot transfer the information to the language-dominant left hemisphere. |
| What is cross-cueing in split-brain patients? | When one hemisphere sends indirect signals to help the other, such as through head movements or vocal cues. |
| How does a split-brain patient react when the right hemisphere processes an emotional image? | They may feel uneasy but cannot verbalize why |
| What is the right hemisphere’s role in language? | It can understand simple words and emotions but lacks full syntactic processing (ability to understand grammar) |
| What is an example of the interpreter in action? | A split-brain patient justifying an action initiated by the right hemisphere with a made-up reason. |
| What happens if the right hemisphere is damaged? | It can lead to spatial neglect and difficulty recognizing faces. |
| What are some disorders associated with abnormal hemispheric lateralization? | Schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorders |
| What is one evolutionary advantage of hemispheric specialization? | It allows for parallel processing, making the brain more efficient. |
| How is hemispheric specialization observed in nonhuman animals? | Many species show lateralized behaviors, such as birds using one eye for scanning predators while the other focuses on food. |
| How does hemispheric specialization benefit motor control? | It helps optimize coordinated and skilled movements, such as tool use. |
| Broca’s area specializes in _________, while Wernicke’s area specializes in____________. | speech production, comprehension |
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