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Development
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Prenatal development | The development of an organism from conception to birth. |
| Conception | The moment a sperm fertilizes an egg. |
| Zygote | The fertilized egg. |
| Embryo | The early stage of development (2 weeks to 8 weeks). |
| Fetus | The developing organism from 9 weeks to birth. |
| Teratogens | Harmful agents (e.g., drugs, alcohol, viruses) that can cause birth defects. |
| Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) | A condition in infants caused by maternal alcohol consumption, leading to physical and cognitive impairments. |
| Epigenetic effect | Changes in gene expression caused by environmental factors that don’t alter the DNA sequence. |
| Developmental Psychology | The study of how people change physically, cognitively, and socially throughout their lifespan. |
| Nature vs. Nurture | Examines the influence of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) on development. |
| Continuity vs. Stages | Whether development is gradual and continuous or occurs in distinct stages. |
| Stability vs. Change | Whether our traits remain stable or change over time. |
| Brain growth spurts | Rapid growth in certain areas of the brain during infancy and early childhood. |
| Pruning process | The elimination of unused neural connections to strengthen more important ones. |
| Motor development | The development of muscle coordination and control over time. |
| Newborn reflex response | Automatic responses that babies are born with, such as the rooting reflex. |
| Habituation | Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated exposure. |
| Maturation | The biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, largely independent of experience. |
| Jean Piaget | Proposed stages of cognitive development, focusing on how children construct knowledge. |
| Schemas | Mental frameworks for organizing and interpreting information. |
| Assimilation | Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas. |
| Accommodation | Adjusting schemas to incorporate new experiences. |
| Sensorimotor stage | From birth to 2 years, learning through senses and actions. |
| Object permanence | The understanding that objects continue to exist even when not visible. |
| Stranger anxiety | Fear of unfamiliar people, typically around 8 months. |
| Preoperational stage | 2 to 7 years, characterized by symbolic thinking but limited logic (e.g., egocentrism). |
| Egocentrism | Difficulty in understanding other people's perspectives. |
| Concrete operational stage | 7 to 11 years, the ability to think logically about concrete events. |
| Conservation | Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance. |
| Mental operations | The ability to think logically about real, concrete events. |
| Formal operational stage | 12 years and up, abstract thinking and reasoning. |
| Abstract logic | Thinking about hypothetical and abstract concepts. |
| Lev Vygotsky | Emphasized the social context of cognitive development and the role of language and interaction. |
| Scaffolding | Support provided by caregivers or others to help the child learn a new task. |
| Attachment | The emotional bond between a child and their caregiver. |
| Harry Harlow | Studied attachment in monkeys, showing the importance of comfort and security. |
| Secure base | A caregiver providing a foundation for the child to explore the world. |
| Critical period | A period during development when certain experiences are necessary for normal development. |
| Imprinting | A rapid attachment process in animals (e.g., birds following the first moving object they see). |
| Mere exposure effect | The tendency to develop a preference for things we are exposed to repeatedly. |
| Strange situation experiment | A study by Mary Ainsworth to observe attachment styles in infants. |
| Secure attachment | The child is distressed when the caregiver leaves but is quickly comforted upon return. |
| Insecure attachment | The child may be anxious, avoidant, or disorganized in their reactions to caregiver departure and return. |
| Moral reasoning (Lawrence Kohlberg) | The process of determining what is right or wrong. |
| Preconventional morality | Based on self-interest and avoiding punishment. |
| Conventional morality | Following rules and laws to gain social approval. |
| Postconventional morality | Based on abstract principles, such as justice and human rights. |
| Adolescence | The period of life between childhood and adulthood, marked by physical and emotional changes. |
| Puberty | The physical changes that occur during adolescence. |
| Primary sex characteristics | Organs directly involved in reproduction. |
| Secondary sex characteristics | Physical traits that distinguish males and females but are not directly involved in reproduction (e.g., body hair, voice changes). |
| Menarche | The first menstrual period in females. |
| Spermarche | The first ejaculation in males. |
| Authoritarian | Strict rules and expectations, with little warmth. |
| Permissive | Warm and accepting but with few rules. |
| Authoritative | Balanced approach with clear expectations and warmth. |
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