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PSYC1001 - Chapter 6
Lecture Material
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Learning | An adaptive process in which the likelihood that we will engage in a certain behaviour changes as a result of experience. Refers to making associations between events and the effect of these associations on behaviour. It cannot be observed, but inferred. |
| The behavioural approach | An approach to learning that attempts to connect an organism’s behaviour (response) to an element of its environment (stimulus) in the effort of explaining current behaviour and predicting future behaviour. |
| The evolutionary approach | An approach to learning that states it is adaptive and functional for survival, as organisms that were able to determine relationships between events were able to survive in a changing environment. But, learning still occurs in an unchanging environment. |
| The orienting response | A process of learning in which our attention is drawn to a novel stimulus. |
| Habituation | A form of classical conditioning in which a repeated unimportant stimulus is not paired with any meaningful event, and we learn to tune it out. |
| Short-term habituation | Habituation that is temporary and the result of stimuli perceived over a short period. |
| Long-term habituation | Habituation that is lasting and the result of stimuli perceived over a long period. |
| Sensitization | Based on a prior stimulus, we become more responsive to a subsequent stimulus that is not necessarily related. |
| Classical/Pavlovian conditioning | Learning about the conditions that predict that a significant event will occur - a type of conditioning that focuses on making relationships with items in our environment. |
| Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) | A stimulus that naturally elicits a response (the presence of food in Pavlov's experiment). |
| Unconditioned response (UCR) | A response that is naturally elicited by a stimulus (the dog salivating in Pavlov's experiment). |
| Neutral stimulus (NS) | A stimulus that does not automatically elicit a response (the tone sounding in Pavlov's experiment). |
| Conditioned stimulus (CS) | A stimulus that was previously neutral but through repeated pairings with the UCS becomes a cue for the response (the tone sounding in Pavlov's experiment). |
| Conditioned response (CR) | A response that was previously the UCR but became the CR when elicited by the CS (the dog salivating in Pavlov's experiment). |
| Acquisition | The learning phase during which conditioning occurs; the organism learns that the CS is paired with the UCS, and learns to exhibit the CR to the CS. |
| Timing | The order and timing of the presentation of the CS and UCS. The optimal timing in between their presentations to speed up acquisition is 0.5 seconds, but organisms are still capable of learning when timing is not optimal. The CS must be presented first. |
| Reliable pairings | The number of times the CS and UCS are presented together. |
| Intensity | The intensity of the UCS that the CS is paired with. |
| Extinction (classical) | The organism learns that the CS is no longer meaningful when it is repeatedly presented without being followed by the UCS (after acquisition). |
| Spontaneous Recovery | The organism exhibits the CR again after extinction when the CS is presented and the organism is uncertain whether it is meaningful. |
| Generalization | A stimulus that is like the CS elicits the CR because the organism cannot distinguish between them. |
| Discrimination | A stimulus that is like the CS does not elicit the CR because the organism can distinguish between them. |
| Higher-order conditioning | A new CS (CSb) overtakes the effect of the original CS (CSa) on the UCS by being presented before the CSa, signaling that the CSb is followed by the CSa, which is then followed by the UCS. |
| Blocking | The previously conditioned CSa will interfere with the organism’s ability to pair the new CSb with the UCS. |
| Excitatory conditioned response | The CS signals that the UCS is about to occur (ex: Pavlov’s first assistant walks into the room prior to feeding the dogs, signaling to the dogs that the first assistant will be followed by the food and causing salivation). |
| Inhibitory conditioned response | The CS signals the absence of the UCS (ex: Pavlov’s second assistant walks into the room, whose job is to observe the dogs in between feedings, signaling to the dogs that the second assistant will not be followed by food and not causing salivation). |
| Phobia | A manifestation of the fear response in which the amount of fear is disproportionate to the situation. The Little Albert experiments showed how a conditioned emotional response (phobia) could be established through classical conditioning. |
| Operant conditioning | The pairing of an organism’s behaviour with an environmental stimulus - a type of conditioning that focuses on the relationship between these two elements. |
| Thorndike’s Law of Effect | Behaviour that leads to positive consequences will be repeated more frequently while behaviour that leads to negative consequences will be repeated less frequently. |
| The Three-Term Contingency | The presence of a discriminative stimulus indicates that our response will elicit a favourable or negative consequence, which then creates a connection between the stimulus and the response. |
| Appetitive stimulus | A stimulus that is good or desirable. |
| Aversive stimulus | A stimulus that is unpleasant or painful. |
| Primary reinforcer | A natural reinforcer (ex: food or any basic physiological need). |
| Secondary reinforcer | A reinforcer that is not innately desired but becomes a reinforcer through conditioning (ex: money). |
| Reinforcement | A type of consequence that increases the likelihood that a response will be repeated. |
| Positive reinforcement | A response is regularly and reliably followed by the onset of an appetitive stimulus. |
| Negative reinforcement | A response is regularly and reliably followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus. |
| Punishment | A type of consequence that decreases the likelihood that a response will be repeated. |
| Positive punishment | A response is regularly and reliably followed by the onset of an aversive stimulus. |
| Negative punishment | A response is regularly and reliably followed by the removal of an appetitive stimulus. |
| Shaping | The reinforcement of a response that successfully approximates the desired response, often the case with unnatural behaviours (ex: potty-training). |
| Intermittent reinforcement | The reinforcement of some, but not all, responses. With this reinforcement schedule, the organism expects its response will go occasionally unrewarded and the response is more resistant to extinction. |
| Interval schedule | A schedule of intermittent reinforcement that is based on the passage of time between reinforcements. Interval schedules produce less rapid rates of responses than ratio schedules. |
| Fixed interval | A response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time, creating a wave-like response pattern. |
| Variable interval | A response is reinforced after a variable amount of time (keeping constant a certain pre-determined average amount of time), creating a steady-state response pattern, more resistant to extinction than fixed schedules. |
| Ratio schedule | A schedule of intermittent reinforcement that is based on the number of responses and reinforcements. Ratio schedules produce more rapid rates of responses than interval schedules. |
| Fixed ratio | A reinforcement is scheduled after a fixed number of responses, creating a high wave-like response pattern. |
| Variable ratio | A reinforcement is scheduled after a variable number of responses (keeping constant a pre-determined average of required responses), creating a high steady-state response pattern, more resistant to extinction than fixed schedules. |
| Observational learning | Learning that occurs through observing the actions of others. |
| Characteristics of the model | A factor that influences the effectiveness of a model in observational learning - one is more likely to learn from a model who is similar to themselves. |
| Attributes of the observer | A factor that influences the effectiveness of a model in observational learning - one is more likely to learn from a model if they are low in self-esteem, highly dependent, or highly motivated. |
| Reward consequences associated with a behaviour | A factor that influences the effectiveness of a model in observational learning in which - one is more likely to learn from a model if they believe actions will lead to a positive outcome. |
| Attentional processes | A process of observational learning that involves paying attention to the model and their behaviour. |
| Retentional processes | A process of observational learning that involves retaining the memory of the behaviour after observing (which may include a symbolic representation of the behaviour) |
| Motor production processes | A process of observational learning that involves practicing the behaviour by translating the symbolic representation into an action or set of actions. |
| Motivational processes | A process of observational learning that involves acquisition (what a person has learned) versus performance (what a person does). |
| Extrinsic reinforcement | A type of reinforcement in observational learning defined as external reinforcement that is socially arranged. |
| Intrinsic reinforcement | A type of reinforcement in observational learning defined as a natural outcome of a behaviour. |
| Vicarious reinforcement | A type of reinforcement in observational learning that involves learning behaviour from the success/mistake of others. |
| Self-reinforcement | A type of reinforcement in observational learning that involves regulating one’s own behaviour by setting a standard or schedule of reinforcement or punishment. |
| Social Learning Theory | We learn social behaviour by observing, imitating, and being rewarded/punished for behaviour. |
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archmall
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