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PSY209 Exam 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Hormones | chemicals that are secreted by one cell group and travel through the bloodstream to act on other cell groups |
| endocrine glands | produce and release hormones within the body |
| What else produces and releases hormones within the body? | some areas in the brain |
| hypothalamus | control of hormone secretions |
| pineal gland | reproductive maturation; body rhythms, single gland on top of the brainstem, secretes melatonin, an amine hormone, almost exclusively at night |
| anterior pituitary | hormone secretion by thyroid, adrenal cortex, and gonads; growth |
| posterior pituitary | water balance; salt balance, secretes oxytocin and vasopressin, hormones synthesized in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus |
| thyroid | growth and development; metabolic rate |
| adrenal cortex (outer bark) | salt and carbohydrate metabolism; inflammatory reactions |
| adrenal medulla (inner core) | emotional arousal |
| pancreas (islets of Langerhans) | sugar metabolism |
| gut | digestion and appetite control |
| gonads (testes/ovaries) | body development; maintenance of reproductive organs in adults |
| Who was the first to demonstrate the importance of hormones for behavior? | German physiologist Arnold Berthold in 1849 |
| What hormone must be present early in life in roosters to result in normal comb and wattles, mounting, aggression, and crowing? | testosterone |
| Early (perinatal period; adolescence) exposure to hormones results in | organization of brain and body which is permanent or long-lasting |
| Later (post-puberty) exposure to hormones results in | activation of behaviors which are short-lived |
| endocrine communication | a chemical is released into the bloodstream to act on target tissues |
| neurocrine communication (synaptic communication) | chemical release and diffusion across a synapse |
| autocrine function | the chemical acts on the releasing cell |
| negative feedback | reduces subsequent release of the chemical |
| positive feedback | enhances subsequent release of the chemical |
| paracrine function | chemical diffuses to nearby target cells |
| What type of fashion do hormones act in? | gradual |
| What do hormones do to behavior? | they change the probability or intensity |
| How can the relationship between behavior and hormones be described? | it is reciprocal |
| Some hormones... | ....affect more than one target |
| Some targets.... | ....are affected by more than one hormone |
| What type of secretion pattern do hormones often have? | pulsatile |
| how are some hormones controlled? | by circadian clocks in the brain |
| Hormones can only affect.... | ....cells with a receptor protein for that hormone |
| Hormones can interact with.... | .....other hormones and change their effects |
| neuroendocrine cells | interface between neurons and endocrine glands, receive synaptic signals from other neurons, and secrete hormones into the bloodstream |
| what are electrical signals converted into? | hormonal signals |
| neural communication | travels to precise destinations and picked up by nearby cells with proper receptor |
| How far do neurotransmitters travel? | 20-40nm |
| Neural messages are.... | ....rapid, but short-lasting |
| hormonal communication | spreads throughout the body and picked up by any cell with proper receptor |
| How far do hormones travel? | can be over one meter |
| hormonal messages are.... | ....slow, but long-lasting |
| peptide and amine hormones | bind metabotropic receptors |
| steroid hormones | bind metabotropic receptors and can pass through the cell membrane and bind intracellular receptors |
| Which receptor effects are slower, intracellular or metabotropic? | intracellular |
| What part of the metabotropic receptor does the hormone bind to? | extracellular part |
| What does the intracellular part activate? | a second messenger |
| cyclic adenosine monophosphate | cyclic AMP or cAMP (second messenger) |
| cyclic guanosine monophosphate | cyclic GMP or cGMP (second messenger) |
| inositol triphosphate | IP3 |
| What do steroid hormones bind to? | intracellular receptors |
| What does the steroid-receptor complex bind to? | DNA |
| What does the steroid-receptor complex act as when bound to DNA? | transcription factor |
| What causes the induction or inhibition of gene expression? | the transcription factor |
| What alters protein production and produces long-lasting effects? | the induction or inhibition of gene expression |
| Negative feedback mechanism 1 | endocrine cell releases a hormone, the hormone has effect on target cell, and hormone also feeds back on the endocrine cell and prevents further release from that cell |
| Negative feedback mechanism 2 | the hormone acts on its target cells and has a biological effect and the biological effect is detected by the endocrine gland and further release from the endocrine cell is inhibited |
| Negative feedback mechanism 3 | hypothalamus stimulates an endocrine cell, endocrine cell (pituitary) releases a hormone, hormone acts on its target cells, has a biological effect, the biological effect is detected by the hypothalamus, stimulation of pituitary by hypothalamus inhibited |
| Example 1 of negative feedback mechanism 3 | corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH; releasing hormone), ACTH (tropic hormone), cortisol (hormone), negative feedback on CRH and ACTH release |
| Example 2 of negative feedback mechanism 3 | thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH; releasing hormone), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH; tropic hormone), thyroid hormone, negative feedback on TRH and TSH release |
| pituitary gland | hypophysis (size of a pea), connected to the brain via the pituitary stalk but not part of the brain, receives hormonal input from hypothalamus, releases hormones into the circulation, modulates physiological and metabolic processes |
| adenohypophysis | anterior pituitary |
| neurohypophysis | posterior pituitary |
| pituitary stalk | connects pituitary to hypothalamus, contains many axons that extend only to the posterior pituitary, richly supplied with blood vessels that carry information only to the anterior pituitary |
| oxytocin | involved in reproductive and parenting behaviors, in uterine contraction, and in the milk letdown reflex |
| vasopressin | arginine vasopressin (AVP), antidiuretic hormone (ADH) |
| Vasopressin serves as hormone in the body to... | ....increase blood pressure, inhibit urine formation (antidiuretic) |
| vasopressin serves as neurotransmitter in the brain to.... | .....modulate anxiety, modulate social behaviors, and modulate learning and memory |
| what do axons from hypothalamic neurons converge on? | the median eminence |
| Where are releasing hormones secreted into? | the hypophyseal portal system (local blood vessels) and carried to the anterior pituitary |
| What do releasing hormones bind to? | their receptors and stimulate the release of tropic hormones |
| what are tropic hormones released into? | the blood circulation to affect their target cells |
| How many tropic hormones does the anterior pituitary release? | six |
| adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) | increases cortisol release from the adrenal cortex |
| thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) | increases thyroid hormone release from thyroids |
| luteinizing hormone (LH) | stimulates female egg production and male testosterone production |
| follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) | stimulates female egg production and male sperm production |
| prolactin | stimulates lactation in females |
| growth hormone (GH) | influences growth |
| adrenal glands | located on top of kidneys, consist of adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla, triangular shaped, 1.2 x 2 x .4 inch each |
| what amine hormones are released by the adrenal medulla? | epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and controlled by the sympathetic nervous system |
| what steroid hormones are released by the adrenal cortex? | glucocorticoids (cortisol/corticosterone), mineralocorticoids (aldosterone), sex steroids (androstenedione) |
| glucocorticoids | increases blood glucose, breaks down protein, released during stress, during early active phase |
| mineralocorticoids | retains sodium by acting on the kidneys |
| sex steroids | contributes to body hair in men and women |
| What do thyroid hormones contain? | iodine |
| goiter | a swelling of the thyroid gland from iodine deficiency |
| cretinism | caused by early thyroid deficiency, also known as congenital hypothyroidism |
| What is iodine added to? | table salt, flour, water, and milk |
| what is a natural source of iodine? | seafood |
| gonadotropin-inhibiting hormone (GnIH) | inhibits LH and FSH |
| What do testes produce? | sperm and androgens (testosterone); androgens are regulated by LH, sperm is regulated by FSH |
| What do ovaries produce? | progestins (progesterone) and estrogens (estradiol); ovarian hormones are controlled by LH and FSH |
| What are estrus cycles in females mediated by? | cyclic release of GnRH, LH, FSH, estradiol, and progesterone |
| how do oral contraceptives work? | they contain synthetic steroids (typically an estrogen and a progestin) that inhibit release of GnRH |
| What does lack of GnRH prevent? | release of FSH and LH, so no egg is released by the ovary |
| melatonin | provides a signal that tracks day length and the seasons, helps you sleep, can aid in jet lag |
| hypothyroidism | induced by iodine deficiency |
| psychosocial dwarfism | decreased GH release due to extreme emotional deprivation/stress |
| diabetes insipidus | lack of vasopressin |
| Cushing's disease | increased ACTH secretion |
| osteoporosis | low levels of estrogen |
| polycystic ovary syndrome | increased androgens |
| How do hormones play a role in social behavior? | act in the brain to regulate aggression, social play, social recognition, and pair-bond formation, have similar function across species, have been implicated in human social disorders, are tested in clinical trials to restore social functioning |
| Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) | characterized by impaired social interactions, the gene Cntnap2 can cause ASD |
| mice lacking the Cntnap2 gene.... | ....avoid social interactions and show reduced levels of oxytocin |
| how to activate oxytocin levels in the brain? | use of designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADDs) |
| designer receptors | only activated by the synthetic drug CNO, DNA is inserted in a viral vector and coupled to an oxytocin promoter gene, injection of this virus into the hypothalamus will result in infection of only those cells that usually synthesize oxytocin |
| wild-type mice | preference for mouse over empty chamber |
| Cntnap2 ko mice | no social preference |
| Cntnap2 ko mice and CNO | normal social preference |
| What was believed until 200 years ago? | that species were created separately |
| naturalists | students of animal life and structure |
| evolution | the gradual change of a species (evidence given by fossils) |
| natural selection | mechanism of evolution proposed by Darwin and Wallace in 1858; theory that indicates that evolution proceeds by differential success in reproduction |
| artificial selection | selection based on desirable traits by human breeders |
| Darwin's hypothesis | reproduction increases a population rapidly, individuals of a species are not identical, some variation is inherited, not all offspring survive to reproduce |
| Variation | in a species affect the probability of survival and reproduction |
| Adaptations | increase the likelihood of having offspring |
| Sexual selection | each sex has features that exert selective pressures on the other that favor reproductive success |
| convergent evolution | similar form or function among unrelated animals that were not present in the last common ancestor of those animals (e.g. flight, carnivory, pair bonding) |
| homoplasy | resemblance between features due to convergent evolution (e.g. body shape) |
| homology | similarity based on common ancestry (e.g. forelimbs) |
| analogy | similar function (e.g. a human hand and an elephant's trunk) |
| mutations | spontaneous changes in genes; cause rapid evolution |
| ecological niches | specific behaviors and neural mechanisms that allow them to exploit specific sets of environmental opportunities |
| selection pressures | favor increased size of the forebrain, improving the species' ability to cope with environmental challenges and opportunities in new, flexible ways |
| The hippocampus is larger in birds that... | ....do store food instead of birds that do not |
| High vocal center (HVC) | essential for vocal learning in birds |
| nerve nets | sea anemone |
| radial nerves | sea star |
| neural rings | earthworm |
| simple ganglia | Alysia |
| How do main brain structures compare in all vertebrates? | they are the same |
| Vertebrates species with larger bodies tend to possess... | ....larger brains, with larger neurons, and larger dendritic trees |
| endocasts | casts of fossil skulls give indication of brain size and shape |
| living animals | study of internal structure of the brain (the nuclei, fiber tracts, and circuitry) |
| encephalization factor | the extent to which brain size deviates from ratio brain size : body size |
| What species of human experienced the most rapid brain development (cerebral volume)? | homo erectus |
| social brain hypothesis | a larger brain is needed to maintain social relationships between similar individuals |
| Advantages of large brain size | innovative behavior, use of tools, social learning, predict survival success in novel environments |
| Disadvantages of large brain size | a long gestation period, prolonged dependence on parents, high metabolic cost, complex genes vulnerable to mutation |
| rapid evolution causes | intentional selection (e.g. wolves to dogs, melons without seeds), antibiotic overuse (evolution of resistant bacteria), human hunting on size (e.g. bighorn rams now have smaller horns, cod fish mature at smaller sizes), predators, food supply |
| What has replaced natural selection in determining who gets to reproduce? | cultural evolution (medical advances, good nutrition) |
| What part of the nervous system develops after eighteen days? | ectoderm, neural plate, mesoderm, endoderm, notochord, and primitive streak |
| Zygote | fertilized egg (embryo) |
| What three cell layers are in a human embryo? | ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm |
| ectoderm | outer layer; becomes nervous system |
| What part of the nervous system develops after twenty days? | neural crest, neural groove |
| neural groove | forms between ridges of the ectoderm |
| What part of the nervous system develops after twenty-two days? | neural tube, central canal, brain plate, and neural groove closes to form neural tube |
| What part of the nervous system develops after twenty-four days? | forebrain (prosencephalon (telencephalon, diencephalon)), midbrain (mesencephalon), dorsal root ganglion, spinal cord, hindbrain (rhombencephalon) |
| What does the anterior neural tube consist of? | forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain |
| Neurogenesis | mitotic production of neurons from nonneuronal cells |
| Cell migration | movement of cells to establish distinct populations |
| Differentiation | precursor cells develop into distinctive neurons or glial cells |
| Synaptogenesis | build up of synaptic connections |
| Neuronal cell death | selective death of nerve cells |
| Synapse rearrangement | refine synaptic connections |
| ventricular zone | cells divide through mitosis |
| marginal zone | migrated cells become neuron/glia cell |
| What enables the migration of neurons cells from ventricular layer to the marginal zone? | radial glial cells |
| radial glial cells | act as guide wires for cells to migrate along |
| What do cells begin to do at destinations? | they express genes to make the proteins they need for cell differentiation to acquire its specific appearance and function |
| cell-autonomous | independent of other cells and driven by genes in the cells |
| neural environment | cells are affected by the influence of nearby cells (e.g. secretion of the protein Sonic hedgehog causes cells in the spinal cord to develop into motor neurons) |
| notochord | secretion of the protein sonic hedgehog which induces cells in the ventral spinal cord to develop as motor neurons, forming columns of motor neurons on the left and right sides |
| process outgrowth | the extensive growth of axons and dendrites |
| filopodia | the outgrowths of growth cones that pull the growth cone in a particular direction |
| What are axons guided by? | chemicals released by target cells |
| chemoattractants | chemicals attracting growth cones |
| chemorepellents | repel growth cones |
| apoptosis | programmed cell death; mechanism to create sex differences in the brain |
| death genes | part of cells that are expressed only during apoptosis |
| caspases | enzymes that cut up proteins and DNA and play a role in apoptosis |
| caspase-deficiency | role in tumor growth |
| caspase overactivation | role in Alzheimer's disease |
| What are the steps of apoptosis? | Ca2+ influx, causes mitochondria to release the protein Diablo, Diablo binds to inhibitors of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) which inhibit caspases, disinhibited caspases dismantle the cell |
| Bcl-2 proteins | block apoptosis by preventing the release of Diablo |
| do males or females have more neurons in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST)? | males |
| Which sex has higher apoptosis early in life? | females |
| target cells produce.... | .....different neurotrophic factors |
| neurons take up and transport these.... | .....neurotrophic factors to the cell nucleus |
| neurons need.... | .....neurotrophic factors to express genes that are transcribed into proteins that are required for the survival of the neuron |
| neurons that get insufficient.... | .....neurotrophic factors will undergo apoptosis |
| the amount of neurotrophic factor..... | .....matches the number of target cells which, in turn, matches the number of innervating neurons |
| What is the lifelong competition for neurotrophic factors? | active synapses survive, inactive synapses die |
| Any experience modulates synaptic activity resulting in.... | ....strengthening of active synapses and weakening of inactive synapses |
| How can developmental disorders be caused? | by embryo/fetus exposure to toxic substances, abnormalities in the genome of embryo/fetus |
| fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) | developmental disorder caused by maternal ingestion of alcohol, occurs in forty percent of children born to alcoholic mothers, results in anatomical (e.g. absence of corpus callosum), physiological, and behavioral impairments |
| What does the brain of an infant with FAS show? | microcephaly (abnormal smallness), fewer cerebral cortical gyri, absence of a corpus callosum connecting the two hemispheres |
| Down syndrome | have third copy of chromosome 21, results in over expression of genes on chromosome 21, causes mild to moderate learning disability |
| fragile X syndrome | have reduced expression of the fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) gene on the X chromosome, results in reduced FMR protein required for neuronal connections, causes mild to moderate learning disability |
| epigenetics | the study of factors that affect gene expression, without changing the nucleotide sequence of the genes |
| mothering | important epigenetic factor that affects brain development |
| less maternal care | more DNA methylation, less expression of a stress-response gene, heightened response to stress |
| methylation | modifies DNA and makes it less likely to be expressed |
| What does low maternal licking and grooming lead to in rats? | high stress hormone levels, high anxiety, and low licking and grooming (caused by addition of methyl groups which lead to reduced gene expression) |
| What does high maternal licking and grooming lead to in rats? | low stress hormone levels, low anxiety, and high licking and grooming |
| Adult L offspring injected with a DNA methylation blocker show.... | .....stress response similar to adult H offspring |
| How many stages are there of reproductive behavior? | four |
| What part of the brain regulates reproductive behavior? | neural circuitry |
| What guides reproductive behavior in many species? | pheromones |
| Gonadal hormones | direct sexual differentiation of the brain and behavior |
| What is the first stage of reproductive behavior? | sexual attraction |
| What is the second stage of reproductive behavior? | appetitive behavior |
| Appetitive behavior | to establish, maintain, or promote sexual interaction (e.g. "ear-wiggling" by proceptive female rats or singing or nest-building in male birds) |
| What is the third stage of reproductive behavior? | copulation |
| Copulation | occurs in most females only when she is sexually receptive (in heat; estrus) |
| What is the fourth stage of reproductive behavior? | post-copulatory behavior |
| External fertilization | not in body, gametes released into water |
| Internal fertilization | inside the female's body, fusion of gametes (sperm and ova) produces a zygote (embryo) |
| Ovoviviparous | embryos have no placental connection with the mother and receive no nourishment from the mother |
| Parthenogenesis | asexual reproduction or virgin birth (approximately 90 species rely on parthenogenesis and there are no males) |
| What are the effects of castration in males? | lose interest in mating due to a lack of testosterone |
| Testosterone treatment | restores mating (activational effect) but it does not alter individual levels of sexual activity |
| When do estrogen and progesterone levels rise? | just prior to ovulation |
| What do high levels of estrogen and progesterone induce in females? | proceptive and receptive behaviors |
| A female without ovaries will show proceptive and receptive behaviors when.... | .....injected with estrogen and progesterone |
| medial pre optic area (mPOA) | mediates the male mounting response |
| vomeronasal organ (VNO) | detects female pheromones, projects to medial amygdala (MeA) which projects to mPOA which projects to ventral midbrain which projects to brainstem nuclei which projects to spinal cord to coordinate mounting |
| What does the mPOA mediate? | the erection response which inhibits paragigantocellular nucleus (PGN) which normally inhibits the erection response |
| do mPOA lesions change male sexual motivation? | no |
| ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) | mediates the female lordosis response through estrogen |
| What does estrogen increase? | dendritic trees of VMH neurons to receive more input, production of progesterone receptors, and production of oxytocin receptors |
| VMH projects to the.... | ....periaqueductal gray (PAG) in the midbrain |
| PAG projects to the.... | ....medullary reticular formation (MRF) |
| MRF projects to the.... | .....spinal cord |
| When a male rat mounts a receptive female..... | .....tactile info via the spinal cord along with info from the VMH-PAG-MRF pathway evokes lordosis |
| Bruce effect | termination of pregnancy and absorbing the fetuses in the presence of a new male |
| Exposure to same male.... | .....pregnancy mediated |
| Exposure to new male or urine of new male.... | .....pregnancy terminated |
| What is the Bruce effect based on? | odor memory |
| What are male pheromones detected by? | the VNO |
| When there is a familiar male.... | .....VNO is inhibited |
| When there is a new male..... | ......VNO is activated which projects to medial amygdala (MeA) which projects to hypothalamus which releases dopamine in anterior pituitary and dopamine blocks release of prolactin from anterior pituitary, without prolactin there is no embryo implantation |
| sex determination | process that determines whether a fetus develops as a male or a female |
| sexual differentiation | process by which individuals develop either male or female bodies and behaviors |
| indifferent gonads | begin to change into ovaries or testes in the first month of gestation in humans |
| SRY gene | Sex-determining Region on the Y chromosome which induces development of testes |
| When there is no SRY gene? | there is a development of ovaries |
| Testosterone develops.... | ....wolffian system |
| Anti-mullerian hormone (AMH) | causes regression of the mullerian system |
| Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) | forms male genitalia |
| Wolffian ducts | in males, develop into the epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicles |
| Mullerian ducts | in females, develop into the oviducts, uterus, and vagina |
| Turner's syndrome | individual with a single X chromosome, female phenotype, but unable to have children, normal intelligence but visual and hearing problems |
| Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) | in XY individuals without functional androgen receptor, testes remain internal, develop mainly as woman |
| Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) | prenatal excess of androgens (from adrenal gland), newborn has an intersex appearance |
| What are either masculine or feminine in character? | chromosomes, gonads, external genitalia, and internal structures |
| behavior | more complex and can be a spectrum of masculine or feminine aspects |
| Childbirth | the only behavior displayed exclusively by one sex |
| organizational effect of testosterone | permanently masculinizes genitalia in utero, permanently masculinizes the brain around birth, permanently induces male-type behaviors |
| sensitive period | the perinatal (around birth) period, occurring more in the prenatal (before birth) period in some species or in the neonatal (immediately after birth) period in other species |
| aromatization hypothesis | testosterone in the brain is converted to estrogens, this is due to the enzyme aromatase in the brain, estrogens in the brain masculinize the brain |
| Why are females not masculinized by estrogens? | alpha-fetoprotein binds estrogens in circulation, this complex cannot enter the brain, this prevents masculinization by estrogens in females, alpha-fetoprotein does not bind testosterone |
| When testosterone (T) produced by the fetal testes enters the brain... | ....T is converted to estrogens (E) by the enzyme aromatase |
| What do estrogens in the brain bind to? | the estrogen receptor (ER) |
| ER complex acts as... | ....transcription factor (binds to DNA) to alter gene expression |
| alpha-fetoprotein | in both sexes binds estrogens, but not androgens, preventing masculinization in females |
| aromatase | involved in many other functions that may lead to further differences between males and females |
| aromatase in neurons | leads to sexual differentiation, gonadotropin feedback, and behavior |
| aromatase in radial glia | neurogenesis |
| aromatase in astroglia | neural repair and cell survival |
| spotted hyenas | highly social animals living in large clans in which females dominate males, females are larger and more aggressive than males, and female genitalia is a pseudo-penis through which they urinate, receive semen, and give birth |
| androstenedione | produced in large amounts in hyena mothers which is not converted to estrogens due to a lack of aromatase |
| sexual dimorphism | sex difference in size or appearance apart from the genitalia |
| Sexual dimorphisms occur in the brain..... | .....brain regions controlling song (HVC and RA) in birds are larger in males, brain regions controlling reproductive behaviors (SDN-POA, AVPV, VMH) in mammals are larger or smaller in males |
| HVC in juvenile birds | sex differences in cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation, and in synaptogenesis |
| sex differences are established by... | ....estrogens (E) that activate the neurotrophic factor BDNF (B) |
| sexually dimorphic nucleus of the pre optic area (SDN-POA) | larger in males than in females (including in humans), lesions disrupt ovulatory behavior in females and copulatory behavior in males, part of the hypothalamus, involved in ovulation in females and copulation in males |
| anteroventral periventricular nucleus (AVPV) | larger in females than in males, mediates estrogen-induced luteinizing hormone (LH) surge that is important for the estrus cycle in females |
| ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) | species-dependent sex difference in size, larger in males in rats, larger in females in mice, role in sexual behavior (lordosis) in females, role in territorial behaviors (aggression, scent marking) in males |
| What conforms to the organizational hypothesis? | the SDN-POA |
| What alters the development of the SDN-POA? | testicular androgens (testosterone) |
| homosexual behavior | not limited to humans and seen in several nonhuman species including birds and mammals, brain areas differ in "gay" vs "straight" individuals which are typically shaped by fetal testosterone levels |
| On average INAH-3 is larger in.... | .....men than in women, and larger in straight men than in gay men |
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Cramdela
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