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Chapter 12 - ANT2410
Stratification
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| social position that a person chooses or achieves on his or her own; examples: wife, college professor, criminal, artists, etc. | achieved status |
| South African system of exclusive racial groups—black, white, colored, & Asian—that were formally recognized, segregated, treated differently in law and life, & occupied different & almost exclusive statuses w/in the society | apartheid |
| social position that a person is born into; incl. race, ethnicity, family of origin, & biological sex | ascribed status |
| view that immigrants should abandon their cultural distinctiveness & become mainstream Americans | assimilation |
| social stratification based on birth/ascribed status in which social mobility between castes is not possible | caste system |
| category of persons who all have about same opportunity to obtain economic resources, power, & prestige & who are ranked relative to other categories | class |
| form of social stratification in which different strata form a continuum & social mobility is possible | class system |
| perspective on social stratification that focuses on economic inequality as source of conflict & change | conflict theory |
| anthropological theory that specific cultural institutions function to support structure of society/serve needs of individuals in society | functionalism (functionalist perspective) |
| opportunities that people have to fulfill their potential in society | life chances |
| view that cultural diversity is a positive value that should be incorporated into national identity & public policy | multiculturalism |
| ability to control resources in one’s own interest; dimension of social stratification | power |
| social honor/respect; dimension of social stratification | prestige |
| culturally constructed category based on perceived physical differences; cultural construction based on specific histories & social structures | race |
| movement from one social strata to another | social mobility |
| social hierarchy resulting from the relatively permanent unequal distribution of goods & services in a society | social stratification |
| accumulation of material resources/access to means of producing these resources; dimension of social stratification | wealth |
| social stratification involves the __ of culturally constructed categories that change over time within specific __ & __ contexts | intersection; economic; historical |
| social stratification is related to social __ and is one of the criteria by which __ are defined | complexity; states |
| basic perspectives on social stratification are | functionalism & conflict theory |
| functionalism holds that social stratification generally benefits the whole society, by __ people socially & economically for working harder | rewarding |
| characteristic of social stratification that does not always serve the general good | inequality |
| social stratification does not necessarily result in recruiting the __ __ people to the __ __ positions | most able; most demanding |
| emphasizes function of inequality in stable social order | functionalist perspective |
| in large-scale social systems __ always seem to accompany substantial inequalities when they are based on __ __ of race, gender, caste, or other attributes an individual is born with | resentment; ascribed factors |
| no society actually offers everyone the __ __ to achieve economic & social success | same opportunities |
| family background/social connections, gender, ethnicity, race, accumulated wealth, & other factors play important roles in determining available opportunities | in all stratified societies |
| attributes much conflict in modern societies (crime, terrorism, ethnic conflict, civil/international wars) to organized & systemic inequality | Gerald Berreman |
| in conflict theory social stratification results from __ __ for scare goods & services | constant struggle |
| in conflict theory, inequalities exist because individuals/groups who have acquired power, wealth, & prestige use their assets/power to __ __ over system of production & __ of the state | maintain control; apparatus |
| when attempts to establish __ falter/are challenged, elites fall back on threat of force or its actual use to maintain the __ __ | dominance; status quo |
| conflict theory if central to work of __ __; argued for primary of economic or class interests | Karl Marx |
| social class who own means of production in capitalist society | capitalists |
| social class who must sell their labor in order to survive in capitalist society | workers |
| according to Marx, relationship of individuals to __ __ __ is critical in determining their wealth, power & prestige | means of production |
| conflict between worker's & owners of means of production & Marx predicted it would be the downfall of this society | central to capitalism |
| who benefits economically | cui bono |
| conflict theorists may sometimes ignore the possibility of __ __ that promote solidarity across class, racial, ethnic, & cast line | social mechanisms |
| social stratification system of any society depends on complex interaction between | power, wealth & prestige |
| anthropologists analyze power by examining its __ & __ deployed to achieve it | sources; goals |
| channels through which power is exercised | sources |
| compare sources/uses of power of American president, prime minister of France, chairman of Communist party of People's Rep. of China, or Ayatollah in Islamic Republic of Iran would be a | cross-cultural perspective |
| wealth is not __ __ of social status, even in capitalist society, although it can translate into high __ __ & power | sole criterion; social position |
| wealth is capable of translating into __ power, which in turn reinforces __ power | symbolic; political |
| may be related to race/ethnicity, income, accumulated wealth, power, personal characteristics, & display of material goods | cultural basis of prestige |
| not all wealth is a | source of prestige |
| key source of prestige in all societies is | occupation |
| occupations are ranked according to their level of spiritual purity/pollution | Hindu caste system |
| dirty jobs are generally on prestigious jobs in | America |
| as __ condition change, value system that supports a particular system of __ __ prestige may change | socioeconomic; ranking occupations |
| surgery was performed by barbers & was lower-class occupation | 18th-century Europe |
| prestige/power associated w/different occupations has almost reversed from traditional society | People's Republic of China |
| before Communist Revolution, China followed a __ __ __ in which scholars had highest honor | Confucian value system |
| after Communist Revolution, Chinese workers were __ & scholars often explicitly __ or __ | honored; ridiculed; despised |
| have long debated whether prestige/economic factors are more important in explaining behavior of people in complex, stratified societies | social scientists |
| German sociologist of late 19th century; argues for importance of status rather than economic interests | Max Weber |
| Marx thought that people were or should be most conscious of their __ __ | class membership |
| Weber believed that people may value prestige & __ __ __ __ even more than their economic position | symbolic aspects of status |
| Weber argued that political action can be motivated by a group's desire to __ __ __ __ as well as, or in opposition to its economic self-interest | defend its social position |
| political action can be motivated by a group's desire to defend its social position as well as, or in opposition to its economic self-interest Marx termed | false consciousness |
| poor whites did not join poor blacks in working to improve their common economic position because they were more committed to maintaining prestige value based on color/race | American South |
| when comparing social stratification systems, anthropologists differentiate between systems where social position is based on | ascribed or achieved status |
| social position primarily based on achievement | open stratification system |
| social position based on ascription | closed stratification system |
| in most modern societies __ & __ play role in social stratification system | achievement; ascription |
| class is category of persons who all have about the same opportunity to obtain economic resources, power & prestige & are ranked __ in relation to other class categories | high-low |
| in class system, possibilities for social mobility are based on __ achievement rather than __ status | individual; ascribed |
| even in most open class system __ __ always play role in moving from one class to another | ascribed statuses |
| closed stratification systems, in which there is __ __ __ possibility of social mobility are called caste systems | little or no |
| social mobility is a __ __ __ & theoretically possible for all society's members | central cultural value |
| opportunity for upward social mobility in US | American Dream |
| social science evidence demonstrates that educational achievement, levels of indebtedness, income, & wealth accumulation are significantly correlated w/race, ethnicity & gender as well as | individual's class status |
| very significant in achievements of higher education | class-based difference |
| American Dream is closely ties to other core __ __ such as individualism, meritocracy, work ethic, optimism, pragmatism, progress, & belief in ability of individuals to control circumstances of their lives | American values |
| economic failure/downward social mobility largely viewed as result of individual failings as well as behaviors, attitudes, & culture of member of lower class, rather than systemic part of social structure | corollary of American Dream |
| prescient in revealing significance & meaning of downward mobility in American class system | Katherine Newman |
| Newman defines as those who had secure jobs. comfortable homes, & reason to believe that future would be one of continued prosperity for themselves & their children | downwardly mobile middle-class people |
| Newman noted that downward mobility was almost __ __ in US | institutionally invisible |
| Newman observes that downward mobility is a __ __ of American society's experience because it does not fit into our cultural universe | hidden dimension |
| Newman emphasizes that __ __ entails not only economic decline but also decline is prestige | job loss |
| cultural emphasis on __ central to American Dream also represses important role of government programs & policies | individualism |
| GI bill, Social Security, unemployment insurance, progressive income tax, & federal mortgage assistance program are examples of important role of government programs & policies that resulted in | growing middle class since WWII |
| 1930s-1970s social mobility was based on cultural vision that held government should provide a safety net & enable upward mobility for | all Americans |
| 1980s government should be kept small, its spending restricted, & success depended on individual achievement free of government help or interference | new American culture ideology |
| is gateway to a middle-class lifestyle & serves basis for family economic security in American society | income |
| have tremendous impact on people’s lives; they are correlated w/health, quality health care in illness, & life span in American society | income & accumulated wealth |
| essential gateway to increasing life chances & social mobility; basis of decent standard of living incl. access to food, clothing, shelter, health care, quality education, & accumulation of some resources or equity as safety net for emergencies | sufficient & steady family income |
| negatively affects not only one's own life chances but also those of one's children | insufficient & irregular income |
| social mobility is a life chance that depends on __ one already is in class system | where |
| people born into wealth, high status, & power use these resources to __ their high class positions & often have means to keep others from achieving __ __ | maintain; upward mobility |
| have better chance of maintaining their position over generations | rich & powerful people |
| tend to share similar life experiences, occupational roles, values, educational backgrounds, affiliation, & political views | members of a social class |
| not merely income, but how that income is spent is an important | dimension of class status |
| even when income & wealth inequalities rose over past 30 years, __ __ seemed to grow more similar | consumer-related lifestyles |
| expressed in personal services & exclusive experiences | class differences |
| high standard of __ __ clouds importance of American class divisions compared to rest of world | material comfort |
| most important American lifestyle difference related to income is ability of wealthy to buy homes in residential areas __ to those with great deal of money | restricted |
| class status is still very significant in __ structure & __ achievements in America | family; educational |
| in America more likely to married before having children, have fewer children, & have children later in life | upper classes |
| Newman notes, __ __ are among most important factors determining whether those in category near poor can make it into middle class | family circumstances |
| household incomes between $20,000 & $40,000/year for family of four | near poor |
| cultural & __ __ of social class reinforce one another | interactional dimensions |
| through interaction based on common residence & schooling, religious participation, voluntary associations, & other social institutions people learn __ of their social class in America | lifestyle |
| lifestyle is important part of sociability, informal/intimate social relationships, explains why social classes tend to be largely | endogamous |
| Chinese, Indian, & Malay are primary ethnic group in | Malaysia |
| small populations descended from 16th-century traders who politically dominated Malay society for 100 years | Portuguese |
| defeated Portuguese, colonized Malaysia, & replaced Portuguese in most important political & economic positions | British |
| when British left, they moved into many commercial & professional positions, now dominating Malaysian economy | Chinese |
| race is not a __ __ but one constructed by humans in specific cultural & historical context | natural category |
| race is used to justify __ treatment & __, affecting lives of both racial majority & minorities | differential; discrimination |
| described Irish as human chimpanzees, race of utter savages, truly barbarous & brutish | Charles Kingsley |
| differing from British by class/religion, used by British to justify their control over Ireland | degenerate Irish race |
| as Irish migrated to US notion of their cultural & biological __ was commonly expressed in language of race | inferiority |
| concept of race applied to Burakumin in | Japan |
| stigmatized/oppressed group perceived by Japanese as innately physically & morally distinct from other Japanese, although there in fact no physical differences between them | Burakumin |
| Burakumin are __ __ distinguished by differences in family name, occupation, & placed of residence | invisible race |
| in many systems of __ __, where physical differences do not define groups, ethnicity, class, caste, or other social distinctions are symbolized in biological/racial terms | inherited stratification |
| differences in inherited stratification systems are associated w/traits of culture, character, morality, intelligence, personality, & purity that are seen as | natural, inherited, & unaltered |
| lack of observable physical differences does not prohibit invention of __ __ or emergence of __ __ | racial categories; racial stratification |
| occur in societies w/different culturally constructed views of race | racial stratification |
| race is viewed as continuum in | Brazil |
| in US, race is largely defined as a __ __ between black & white | binary opposition |
| multiple exclusive racial classifications were formally recognized, treated differently in law/life, & occupied different & almost exclusive statuses within society | S Africa |
| in US race is culturally constructed largely on basis of __ __ __ such as skin color, hair texture, & presumed ancestry | few observable characteristics |
| historically N American system of racial stratification primarily divides people into | black & white |
| reality ignored by American dichotomy of racial stratification is that __ __ actually forms a continuum | skin color |
| reality ignored by American dichotomy of racial stratification is that widespread __ __ occurred historically & continues in present | racial mixing |
| 2000 US census permitted people to identify as __ __ __ race; 7 million people, almost 1/2 whom were under 18, chose to do so | more than one |
| some scholars suggest may be converging in racial formations | US & Brazil |
| undermines American binary race project | multiraciality |
| some scholars hope for __ American society, rather than __ one similar to Brazil | post-racial; hyper-racial |
| constructed nature revealed in antebellum Southern court decisions, for purpose of school segregation | American binary of race |
| binary of race classifies Chinese as | white |
| binary of race classifies individuals w/at least 1/32nd "negro blood" as __, even if their skin color was indistinguishable from __ | back; whites |
| ironic comment on American construction of race, once told American reporter that 96% of Haitians were white using same procedure for counting whites "a drop of white blood" that Americans used for counting blacks | Haitian dictator Papa Doc Duvalier |
| for white in America ordinary experiences such as shopping, buying/renting place to live, finding hairdresser, do not generally involve __ on their racial identity | reflection |
| binary form of American racial classification grew out of __ __ of slavery | historical conditions |
| racial stereotypes used to justify slavery & later segregation in America, were supported by emerging __ & __ __ | biological; social sciences |
| biological & social sciences in America, legitimized races as __ __ natural categories characterized by physical cultural, intellectual, & moral differences | hierarchically arranged |
| social class, race & ethnicity interact in complex ways to produce the __ __ __ system of US | particular social stratification |
| race is __ as scientific concept, but as __ __ is centrally implicated in American social stratification system | misguided; social fact |
| where race intersects with class impacts __ __ of life & __ of life itself in American system | every aspect; potential |
| black male infant born in US today will life 7 years __ than white male infant | less |
| racial -- are also revealed in access to healthcare & healthcare outcomes | disparities |
| 30% of African Americans, Latinos, & members of other minority groups are uninsured, compared to 17% of whites in | New York City |
| people covered by Medicare are more treated differently by health care institutions; more likely to be seen by rotating med students/interns, thus less likely to receive | coordinated medical care |
| race & racism are highly correlated with | industrial pollution |
| race compounded by class also affects traumas caused & experienced by | environmental disasters |
| although African American & Latinos comprise only 25% of US population they are more than 60% of those | in prison |
| convicted rates 10-35 time higher than white women in US prisons | black women |
| accumulated wealth only 14.6% & 13.2% of the $140,700 median new worth for white families | African American & Latino |
| is only one among many social institutions that reflect stratifies nature of class, race, ethnicity, & indigenous status in US | educational achievement |
| argued for importance of culture; believed voluntary minorities are higher educational achievers than involuntary minorities | John Ogbu |
| those who came to US voluntarily in order to better their lives | voluntary minorities |
| include Native Americans, African Americans brought as slaves, & Mexican-Americans incorporated through military policies of expansion | involuntary minorities |
| present US population consists substantially of voluntary migrants & it is unclear how/if this has affected their educational achievement | Mexican-Americans |
| Ogbu wrote, voluntary minorities believe in possibilities for social mobility & thus emphasize education as | route to getting ahead |
| Ogbu wrote, involuntary minorities view social hierarchy of US as unfair, permanent, & systematically__; less likely to believe that educational achievement will lead to success in life | discriminatory |
| students from involuntary minorities cope w/subordinated social status by creating a 2ndary culture in which peer group values of cool behavior are more important than academic achievement; characteristic of inner-city Latino & African-American ghettos | oppositional culture |
| oppositional culture makes __ __ likely | academic failure |
| study of E Harlem; school itself is significant place for learning oppositional culture, including necessary skills for surviving on streets of inner cities all of which undermine | effective learning |
| anthropologists emphasize that negative effects of inner city oppositional culture have their course in __ of inner-city neighborhoods | poverty |
| anthropologists emphasize that negative effects of inner city oppositional culture have their course in discriminatory __ __ such as low expectations of minority student | educational policies |
| anthropologists emphasize that negative effects of inner city oppositional culture have their course in __ & __ schools | overcrowded; underfunded |
| anthropologists emphasize that negative effects of inner city oppositional culture have their course in __ teachers | less-qualified |
| much social science research shows that most inner-city residents support mainstream __ __ & behaviors, especially educational achievement | cultural norms |
| where oppositional cultural model puts burden on inner-city student to change their culture, model's critics emphasize education achievement among minorities depends upon fairer distribution of __ | resources |
| where oppositional cultural model puts burden on inner-city student to change their culture, model's critics emphasize education achievement among minorities depends upon more __ educational policies | equitable |
| where oppositional cultural model puts burden on inner-city student to change their culture, model's critics emphasize education achievement among minorities depends upon transformation of schools into safer, more __ environments | disciplined |
| Brazil has __ __ whose core labor force consisted of African slaves | plantation economy |
| policy in Brazil of encourage immigration of Europeans | whitening |
| after slavery was abolished in Brazil, they did not translate racial distinctions into __ & interracial marriage & sexual relations were not __ | law; illegal |
| laws in US affected marriages of white w/African Americans, Japanese, Filipinos, & Native Americans as central ideological tool for constituting & reproducing | white supremacy |
| individuals of African descent account for 45% of | Brazil's population |
| 15% of Brazil's population identify as __ on census form | preta (black) |
| the remainder of Brazil's population identify as __ on census form | parda |
| parda in Brazil signifies brown, of __ African ancestry | partial |
| __ in Brazil is tied to social stratification | self-identification |
| Brazilian understanding of race is __, but distribution of wealth & services in profoundly unequal & __ | flexible; racial |
| intermediate category between black & white | mulatto |
| light mulatto | mulatto claro |
| person w/reddish skin & light curly hair | sarara |
| promoted idea that Brazilian national identity resulted from mixing people of European, African, & indigenous ancestry; influence gave race mixing positive connotation | Gilberto Freyre |
| Freyre's work used to promote notion among politicians, academics, & in culture at large that Brazil was a | racial democracy |
| measure national quality of life | UN Human Development Index (HDI) |
| in Brazil __ __ between whites & nonwhites are much greater than in US | educational disparities |
| Brazil has higher rate of __ than the US | illiteracy |
| Brazilian __ __ is almost entirely domain of the province of white elites | higher education |
| argues ethnicity has important cultural content, must be viewed as aspect of relationships among groups in society which may be competitive, conflictual, cooperative, or combination | Fredrick Barth |
| Barth's approach led anthropologists to ask new questions about how ethnicity works as a vehicle for | association, collective action, & personal identity |
| Barth's approach led anthropologists to ask new questions about how ethnic groups & identities __, __ & __ in response to economic & social environments | emerge; change; disappear |
| narrative of America as a nation of immigrants to pursue freedom from fear & vision of American dream taking place simultaneously with ongoing project of creating | American national identity |
| early idealistic vision of America as land of opportunity, upward mobility, & political freedom were largely restricted to immigrants from | northern & western Europe (Nordic) |
| American Constitution limited __ to those who were free & white | citizenship |
| 1880-1920s immigrants from S & E Europe (Greeks & Poles) were racially distinguished from | Nordic races |
| 1920s restrictive immigration laws effectively limited immigration to Nordic groups viewed as culturally, physically, & politically similar to members of groups who __ __ in US | held power |
| until mid-20th-century __ __ __ regarding immigrants was assimilation | dominant American ideology |
| settlement houses, public schools, & citizenship classes were formed to teach immigrants __ __ & motivate them to assimilate | American ways |
| referred primarily to ethnic groups descended from European populations | melting pot |
| melting excluded __ __ minorities-Mexican, African/Native American-as well as small numbers of Asians/Middle East | racially defined |
| was also imposed on Native Americans; largely failed to persuade to adopt mainstream culture, but did result in loss of culture & lead, & increase in social problems such as alcoholism & poverty | policy of assimilation |
| intended to permanently alienated Native American children from their cultures & languages | American boarding schools |
| headed Bureau of Indian Affairs, government policies reversed to support strengthening of Indian cultures & societies | John Collier |
| 1965, explicitly aimed at reversing discriminatory basis of earlier immigration laws | Nationality Act |
| Nationality Act greatly expanded number of people permitted to immigrate from __ __ against nations | previously discriminated |
| Nationality Act abolished __ __ | immigration quotas |
| Nationality Act gave __ __ to social goal of family unification | high priority |
| Nationality Act put refugee immigration on a more __ basis | structured |
| rise of international terrorism, cyclical nature of global/national/regional economies, increase of illegal immigration, & transnationalism | changing contexts of immigration |
| 1965 immigration laws opened up US to skilled, highly trained __ immigrants from S Asia as well as Middle East | Muslim |
| largest group of Latinos are | first-generation immigrants |
| as of 2002 Mexicans accounted for 20% of total __ __ to US | legal immigration |
| castes are hereditary & __ | endogamous |
| caste are ranked in relation to one another & characteristically associated with __ __ | traditional occupations |
| caste system consists of ranked, culturally distinct, interdependent, endogamous group with rigidly maintained __ between castes | boundaries |
| blacksmiths, praise-singers, & leather workers function as endogamous castes | W Africa |
| peasants & nobility were endogamous castes | traditional European society |
| before 1950 era of expanding civil right, black/white relations in American south also __ __ of cast system | incorporated elements |
| caste system deeply & historically embedded in culture & plays central role in social stratification | India |
| __ __ of Indian caste system are its complexity, relation to Hindu religious beliefs & rituals, & degree to which castes are cohesive & self-regulating groups | unique elements |
| Hindu caste system contains four main categories called | varna |
| highest ranked varna; priests & scholars | Brahmins |
| 2nd highest ranked varna; ruling & warrior cast | Kshatriyas |
| 3rd ranked varna; merchants | Viasyas |
| 4th ranked varna; menial workers & artisans | Shudras |
| 5th group below 4 varnas; previously called untouchables; perform spiritually polluting work such as cleaning latrines or tanning leather | Dalits |
| Dalits are considered so ritually __ that their mere touch, or even shadow, __ purity of higher castes | impure; contaminates |
| birth into Hindu caste is considered __ or __ for actions in previous life | reward; punishment |
| in Indian villages the lowest castes are __ & __ segregated, prohibited from using high caste wells & temples | spatially; socially |
| previously untouchable class of leather workers/shoemakers who became fairly wealthy due to increased domestic/global demand for leather shoes | Camars of Agra |
| when initial attempt to raise their caste failed in Hindu caste system Camars converted to __ which put them outside the Hindu cast system | Buddhism |
| in rural/urban India caste ranking appears to be less sharply defined as before, at least within __ __ categories | higher caste |
| significant change in caste system in India is weakening in __ __ between caste & occupation | traditional connection |
| significant change in public discourse about Hindu castes is that they are now commonly referred to in public as __ __ or __ | cultural communities; associations |
| Hindu castes were previously called jatis which literally means | species |
| in public strict maintenance of Hindu cast boundaries such as __ , has weakened particularly in cities | inter-dining |
| in private/rural areas many Hindu caste-related boundaries remain particularly regarding __ marriages | arranged |
| __ __ in education & employment, based on (low) caste status incorporated into Indian Constitution, keeps caste alive for more pragmatic reasons | affirmative action |
| even w/rise of new Indian class system, cast remains __ __ __ in Indian society & is unlikely to disappear in near future | important structural element |
| India's __ & __ systems are changing under impact of global economy | caste; class |
| heavily subsidized farms in US/Europe has depressed international prices for agricultural products affecting million of __ __ in India | cotton farmers |
| since India's government does not provide much social support & financial aid for farmers they are forced to rely on | informal sector moneylenders |
| race is recent human invention, race is about culture not biology, & race/racism continue to be embedded in American culture, social institutions, & everyday life are three main message of | RACE project |
| in US race is closely linked to __ economy | plantation |
| ethnography of Southern community documents vulnerability of African Americans to industrial pollution & ways in which community response shaped by racial stratification | Melissa Checker |
| social stratification is the result of __ distribution of resources | unequal |
| conflict theory holds that the natural condition of society is | conflict & change |
| according to the text, the recession of 2008-2009 showed that __ __ of our economic system outweigh individual factors in explaining failure & inequality | systemic aspects |
| in a caste system, the basic relationship between castes is | interdependence |
| debt accumulation is an example of manner in which class, race, and ethnicity __ in the US | intersect |
| most foreign-born American Muslims __ in the American Dream | believe |
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