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The four primary tissues
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| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Tissue | a group of similar cells and cell products working together to perform a specific role in an organ |
| The four primary tissues | epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscular) |
| Types and functions of their cells | Characteristics of the matrix (extracellular material) • Relative amount of space occupied by cells versus matrix |
| Matrix (extracellular material) is composed of: Fibrous proteins | Clear gel called ground substance |
| Ground Substance | Also known as tissue fluid, extracellular fluid (ECF), interstitial fluid, or tissue gel |
| A ------ becomes an embryo with layers | fertilized egg |
| Three primary germ layers: | Ectoderm (Outer), Endoderm (Inner), Mesoderm (Middle) |
| Ectoderm (Outer): | Gives rise to epidermis and nervous system |
| Endoderm (Inner): | Gives rise to mucous membrane lining digestive and respiratory tracts, digestive glands, among other things |
| Mesoderm (Middle): | becomes gelatinous tissue called mesenchyme. Wispy collagen fibers and fibroblasts in gel matrix • Gives rise to cartilage, bone, blood |
| Understanding histology | requires awareness of how specimens are prepared |
| Histologists | preserve, slice and section tissues |
| Fixative | prevents decay (formalin) |
| Histological sections: | tissue is sliced into thin sections one or two cells thick |
| Stains: | tissue is mounted on slides and artificially colored with histological stain |
| Stains | bind to different cellular components |
| Sectioning reduces three-dimensional structure to two- | dimensional slice |
| Sectioning a cell with a centrally | located nucleus |
| Some slices miss the | cell nucleus |
| In some slices, the ----- appear smaller | cell and nucleus |
| ----- might not look continuous when viewed in two dimensions | Curved and coiled ducts |
| Longitudinal section (l.s.) | Tissue cut on its long axis |
| Cross section (c.s. or x.s.) or transverse section (t.s.) | Tissue cut perpendicular to long axis of organ |
| Oblique section | Tissue cut at angle between cross and longitudinal sections |
| Smear | tissue is rubbed across a slide - Example: Blood |
| Spread | some membranes and cobwebby tissues are laid out on a slide - Example: areolar tissue |
| Epithelia are sheets of closely adhering cells, one or more cells thick | |
| Covers body surfaces and lines body cavities - | Epithelial Tissue |
| Upper surface | usually exposed to the environment or an internal space in the body |
| Epithelial Tissue | Constitutes most glands |
| Avascular | (does not have blood vessels) |
| Avascular | Usually nourished by underlying connective tissue |
| Epithelial Tissue Functions: | Protect deeper tissues from injury and infection, Produce and release chemical secretions, Excrete wastes, Absorb chemicals including nutrients, Selectively filter substances, Sense stimuli |
| Epithelial cells | are very close together |
| Epithelial Cells | Have a high rate of mitosis |
| Basement membrane | layer between an epithelium and underlying connective tissue |
| Basement membrane | Collagen, reticular proteins, glycoproteins, other protein–carbohydrate complexes |
| Basement membrane | Anchors the epithelium to the connective tissue below it |
| Basal surface | cell surface facing the basement membrane |
| Apical surface | cell surface that faces away from the basement membrane |
| Lateral surface | cell surface between the basal and apical surface, “sidewall” © |
| Simple epithelia | Contain one layer of cells |
| Simple epithelia | Named by shape of cells |
| Simple epithelia | All cells touch basement membrane |
| Stratified epithelia | Contain more than one layer |
| Stratified epithelia | Named by shape of apical cells |
| Stratified epithelia | Some cells rest on top of others and do not touch basement membrane |
| Four types on epithelia with only one layer of cells - | Simple squamous, Simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudostratified columnar |
| Simple squamous | (thin, scaly cells) |
| Simple cuboidal | (square or round cells) |
| Simple columnar | (tall, narrow cells) |
| Pseudostratified columnar | Falsely appears stratified, as some cells taller than others |
| Pseudostratified columnar | Every cell reaches the basement membrane (but not all cells reach the free surface) |
| Goblet cells | wineglass-shaped mucus-secreting cells in simple columnar and pseudostratified epithelia |
| Simple squamous epithelium | Single row of thin cells |
| Simple squamous epithelium | Permits rapid diffusion or transport of substances |
| Simple squamous epithelium | Secretes serous fluid |
| Simple squamous epithelium | Locations: alveoli, glomeruli, endothelium, and serosa |
| Simple cuboidal epithelium | Single layer of square or round cells |
| Simple cuboidal epithelium | Absorption and secretion, mucus production and movement |
| Simple cuboidal epithelium | Locations: liver, thyroid, mammary and salivary glands, bronchioles, and kidney tubules |
| Simple columnar epithelium | Single row of tall, narrow cells |
| Simple columnar epithelium | Oval nuclei in basal half of cell |
| Simple columnar epithelium | Brush border of microvilli, ciliated in some organs, may possess goblet cells |
| Simple columnar epithelium | Absorption and secretion; secretion of mucus |
| Simple columnar epithelium | Locations: lining of GI tract, uterus, kidney, and uterine tubes |
| Pseudostratified Epithelium | Looks multilayered, but all cells touch basement membrane |
| Pseudostratified Epithelium | Nuclei at several layers |
| Pseudostratified Epithelium | Has cilia and goblet cells |
| Pseudostratified Epithelium | Secretes and propels mucus |
| Pseudostratified Epithelium | Locations: respiratory tract and portions of male urethra |
| Stratified epithelia | Range from 2 to 20 or more layers of cells. Some cells rest directly on others |
| Stratified Epithelia | Only the deepest layer attaches to basement membrane |
| Three stratified epithelia are named for the shapes of their apical surface cells | Stratified squamous, stratified cuboidal, stratified columnar (rare) |
| Fourth type stratified epithelia | Urothelium |
| Stratified squamous | is most widespread epithelium in the body |
| Deepest layers undergo continuous mitosis | Daughter cells push toward the surface and become flatter as they migrate upward * Finally die and flake off—exfoliation or desquamation |
| Two kinds of stratified squamous epithelia | Keratinized & Nonkeratinized |
| Keratinized | found on skin surface, abrasion resistant |
| Nonkeratinized | lacks surface layer of dead cells |
| Keratinized stratified squamous | Multiple cell layers; cells become flat and scaly toward surface |
| Keratinized stratified squamous | Resists abrasion; retards water loss through skin; resists penetration by pathogenic organisms |
| Keratinized stratified squamous | Locations: epidermis; palms and soles heavily keratinized |
| Nonkeratinized stratified squamous | Same as keratinized epithelium without surface layer of dead cells |
| Nonkeratinized stratified squamous | Resists abrasion and penetration of pathogens |
| Nonkeratinized stratified squamous | Locations: tongue, oral mucosa, esophagus, and vagina |
| Stratified cuboidal epithelium | Two or more cell layers; surface cells square or round |
| Stratified cuboidal epithelium | Secretes sweat; produces sperm, produces ovarian hormones |
| Stratified cuboidal epithelium | Locations: sweat gland ducts; ovarian follicles and seminiferous tubules |
| Urothelium | Multilayered epithelium with surface cells that change from round to flat when stretched |
| Urothelium | Allows for filling of urinary tract |
| Urothelium | Locations: ureter and bladder |
| Connective tissue | a diverse, abundant type of tissue in which cells occupy less space than matrix |
| Connective tissue | Most cells are not in direct contact with each other |
| Connective tissue | Supports, connects, and protects organs |
| Highly variable vascularity | Loose connective tissues have many blood vessels |
| Cartilage | has few or no blood vessels |
| Connecting organs | tendons and ligaments |
| Support | bones and cartilage |
| Physical protection | cranium, ribs, sternum |
| Immune protection | white blood cells attack foreign invaders |
| Movement | bones provide lever system |
| Storage | fat, calcium, phosphorus |
| Heat production | metabolism of brown fat in infants |
| Transport | blood |
| Fibroblasts | produce fibers and ground substance of matrix |
| Macrophages | arise from monocytes; phagocytize foreign material and activate immune system when they sense foreign matter (antigens) |
| Leukocytes, or white blood cells | Neutrophils, Lymphocytes |
| Neutrophils | attack bacteria |
| Lymphocytes | react against bacteria, toxins, and other foreign agents |
| Plasma | arise from lymphocytes and synthesize antibodies (proteins) |
| Mast cells | secrete heparin to inhibit clotting and histamine to dilate blood vessels |
| Adipocytes | store triglycerides (fat molecules) |
| Fibers | of fibrous connective tissue: Collagenous fibers, reticular fibers, elastic fibers |
| Collagen | is most abundant of the body’s proteins—25% |
| Collagenous fibers | Tough, flexible, and stretch-resistant |
| Tendons, ligaments, and deep layer | of the skin are mostly collagen; it is less visible in the matrix of cartilage and bone |
| Reticular fibers | Thin collagen fibers coated with glycoprotein |
| Reticular fibers | Form framework of spleen and lymph nodes |
| Elastic fibers | Thinner than collagenous fibers, made of protein elastin |
| Elastic fibers | Allows stretch and recoil |
| Ground substance of fibrous connective tissue | Usually gelatinous to rubbery consistency |
| Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) | Long polysaccharides composed of amino sugars and uronic acid |
| Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) | Regulate water and electrolyte balance of tissues |
| Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) | Examples: chondroitin sulfate, heparin, and hyaluronic acid |
| Proteoglycans | Gigantic molecules shaped like bottle brushes |
| Proteoglycans | Form gravy-like colloids that hold tissues together |
| Adhesive glycoproteins | Protein–carbohydrate complexes * Bind components of a tissue together |
| Loose connective tissue | Much gel-like ground substance between cells |
| Loose connective tissue | Types • Areolar • Reticular |
| Dense connective tissue | Fibers fill spaces between cells |
| Types vary in fiber orientation | Dense regular connective tissue • Dense irregular connective tissue |
| Areolar tissue | loosely organized fibers, abundant blood vessels, and a lot of seemingly empty space |
| Fibrous connective tissue | Possesses all six cell types |
| Fibers run in random directions | mostly collagenous, but elastic and reticular also present |
| Fibers | Found in tissue sections from almost every part of the body |
| Nearly every epithelium rests on a layer of areolar tissue | Blood vessels provide nutrition to epithelium and waste removal |
| Nearly every epithelium rests on a layer of areolar tissue | Ready supply of infection-fighting leukocytes that move about freely in areolar tissue |
| Areolar tissue | Loosely organized fibers, abundant blood vessels |
| Areolar tissue | Underlies epithelia, in serous membranes, between muscles, passageways for nerves and blood vessels |
| Reticular tissue | Mesh of reticular fibers and fibroblasts |
| Reticular tissue | Forms supportive stroma (framework) for lymphatic organs |
| Reticular tissue | Found in lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and bone marrow |
| Dense regular connective tissue | Densely packed, parallel collagen fibers |
| Dense regular connective tissue | Compressed fibroblast nuclei |
| Dense regular connective tissue | Elastic tissue forms wavy sheets in some locations |
| Dense regular connective tissue | Tendons attach muscles to bones and ligaments hold bones together |
| Dense irregular connective tissue | Densely packed, randomly arranged, collagen fibers and few visible cells |
| Dense irregular connective tissue | Withstands unpredictable stress |
| Dense irregular connective tissue | Locations: deeper layer of skin; capsules around organs |
| Adipose tissue (fat) | tissue in which adipocytes are the dominant cell type |
| Adipose tissue | Space between adipocytes is occupied by areolar tissue, reticular tissue, and blood capillaries |
| Fat | is the body’s primary energy reservoir |
| The quantity of stored ---- are quite stable in a person | triglyceride and the number of adipocytes |
| Fat | is recycled continuously |
| New ----- synthesized while old molecules hydrolyzed and released to blood | triglycerides |
| Two types of fat: | white and brown |
| White fat is main type (only fat in adults) | Specimens resemble chicken wire |
| White fat | Specimens resemble chicken wire |
| White fat | Cushions organs such as eyeballs, kidneys |
| White fat | Contributes to body contours—female breasts and hips |
| Brown fat | in fetuses, infants, children |
| Brown fat | Color comes from blood vessels and mitochondrial enzymes |
| Brown fat | Functions as a heat-generating tissue |
| Adipose tissue | Empty-looking cells with thin margins; nucleus pressed against cell membrane |
| Energy storage, insulation, cushioning | Subcutaneous fat and organ packing |
| Energy storage, insulation, cushioning | Brown fat of juveniles produces heat |
| Cartilage | Stiff connective tissue with flexible matrix |
| Cartilage | Gives shape to ear, tip of nose, and larynx |
| Chondroblasts | cartilage cells that produce the matrix that will trap them |
| Chondrocytes | cartilage cells that are trapped in lacunae (cavities) |
| Perichondrium | sheath of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds elastic and most hyaline cartilage (not articular cartilage) |
| Perichondrium | Contains a reserve population of chondroblasts that contribute to cartilage growth throughout life |
| No blood vessels (avascular) | Diffusion brings nutrients and removes wastes • Heals slowly |
| Matrix rich | in GAGs and contains collagen fibers |
| Types of cartilage vary with fiber composition | Hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage |
| Hyaline cartilage | Clear, glassy appearance because of fineness of collagen fibers |
| Hyaline cartilage | Eases joint movement, holds airway open, moves vocal cords, growth of juvenile long bones |
| Hyaline cartilage | Locations: articular cartilage, costal cartilage, trachea, larynx, fetal |
| Elastic cartilage | Cartilage containing abundance of elastic fibers |
| Elastic cartilage | Covered with perichondrium |
| Elastic cartilage | Provides flexible, elastic support |
| Elastic cartilage | Locations: external ear and epiglottis |
| Fibrocartilage | Cartilage containing large, coarse bundles of collagen fibers |
| Fibrocartilage | Resists compression and absorbs shock |
| Fibrocartilage | Locations: pubic symphysis, menisci, and intervertebral discs |
| Bone (osseous) tissue | is a calcified connective tissue |
| Two forms of osseous tissue | Spongy bone, Compact bone |
| Spongy bone | porous appearance |
| Delicate struts of bone | trabeculae |
| Spongy bone | Covered by compact bone |
| Spongy bone | Found in heads of long bones and in middle of flat bones such as the sternum |
| Compact bone | denser, calcified tissue with no visible spaces |
| Compact bone | More complex arrangement |
| Compact bone | Cells and matrix surround vertically oriented blood vessels in long bones |
| Compact bone | is arranged in cylinders that surround central (osteonic) canals that run longitudinally through shafts of long bones |
| Compact bone | Blood vessels and nerves travel through central canal |
| Compact bone | Bone matrix deposited in concentric lamellae |
| Osteon | central canal and its surrounding lamellae |
| Osteocytes | mature bone cells within lacunae |
| Canaliculi | delicate canals radiating from each lacuna to its neighbors, allowing osteocytes to contact each other |
| Periosteum | tough fibrous connective tissue covering the whole bone |
| Blood | Fluid connective tissue |
| Blood | Transports cells and dissolved matter from place to place |
| Plasma | blood’s ground substance |
| Formed elements | cells and cell fragments |
| Erythrocytes | red blood cells (RBCs): transport O2 and CO2 |
| Leukocytes | white blood cells (WBCs): defend against infection and disease |
| Leukocytes | Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, monocytes |
| Platelets | cell fragments involved in clotting |
| Excitability | ability to respond to stimuli by changing membrane potential |
| Excitability | Developed to highest degree in nervous and muscular tissues |
| Membrane potential | electrical charge difference (voltage) that occurs across the cell membrane |
| In nerve cells | changes in voltage result in rapid transmission of signals to other cells |
| In muscle cells | changes in voltage result in contraction, shortening of the cell |
| Nervous tissue | Specialized for communication by electrical and chemical signals |
| Nervous tissue | Neurons (nerve cells) detect stimuli, respond quickly, and transmit coded information rapidly to other cells |
| Nervous tissue | Neuroglia (glial cells) protect and assist neurons, are the “housekeepers” of nervous system |
| Neuron parts | Neurosoma, dendrites, axon (nerve fibers) |
| Neurosoma (cell body) | houses nucleus and other organelles; controls protein synthesis |
| Dendrites | short, branched processes that receive signals from other cells and transmit messages to the neurosoma |
| Axon (nerve fiber) | sends outgoing signals to other cells; can be more than a meter long |
| Muscular tissue | elongated cells that are specialized to contract in response to stimulation |
| Muscular tissue | Primary job is to exert physical force on other tissues and organs |
| Muscular tissue | Creates movements involved in body and limb movement, digestion, waste elimination, breathing, speech, and blood circulation |
| Muscular tissue | Important source of body heat |
| Types of muscle | skeletal, cardiac, and smooth |
| Skeletal muscle | Made of muscle fibers—long thin cells |
| Most ----- attach to bone | skeletal muscles |
| Skeletal muscle | Contains multiple nuclei adjacent to plasma membrane |
| Striations | alternating dark and light bands |
| Voluntary | conscious control over skeletal muscles |
| Cardiac muscle | Limited to the heart wall |
| Cardiomyocytes | are short and branched with one centrally located nucleus |
| Intercalated discs | join cardiomyocytes end to end |
| Cardiomyocytes | Provide electrical and mechanical connection |
| Striated and involuntary | (not under conscious control) |
| Smooth muscle | Made of fusiform cells lacking striations |
| Smooth muscle | Cells are relatively short and have one central nucleus |
| Smooth muscle | Involuntary function |
| Smooth muscle | Most is visceral muscle—making up parts of walls of hollow organs |
| Cell junctions | connections between two cells |
| Cellular junctions | Most cells are anchored to each other or their matrix |
| Cellular junctions | Cells communicate with each other, resist mechanical stress, and control what moves through the gaps between them |
| Tight junction | zipper-like, interlocking linkage between two adjacent cells by transmembrane cell-adhesion proteins |
| Tight junction | Seals off intercellular space, making it difficult for substance to pass between cells |
| Desmosome | patch that holds cells together (like a clothing snap) |
| Desmosome | Keeps cells from pulling apart—resists mechanical stress |
| Desmosome | Hook-like, J-shaped proteins arise from cytoskeleton |
| Hemidesmosome | half-desmosome that anchors basal cells of an epithelium to an underlying basement membrane |
| Epithelium | cannot easily peel away from underlying tissues |
| Gap (communicating) junction | formed by ring-like connexons |
| Connexon | consists of six transmembrane proteins arranged like segments of an orange around water-filled pore |
| Gap Junctions | Ions, nutrients, and other small solutes pass between cells |
| Gap Junctions | Located in cardiac and smooth muscle, embryonic tissue, lens and cornea |
| Gland | cell or organ that secretes substances for use elsewhere in the body or releases them for elimination from the body |
| Gland | Usually composed of epithelial tissue in a connective tissue framework and capsule |
| Secretion | product useful to the body |
| Excretion | waste product |
| Exocrine glands | maintain their contact with surface of epithelium by way of a duct |
| Surfaces can be external (e.g., sweat, tear glands) | or internal (e.g., pancreas, salivary glands) |
| Endocrine glands | have no ducts; secrete hormones directly into blood |
| Hormones | chemical messengers that stimulate cells elsewhere in the body |
| Endocrine glands | Examples: thyroid, adrenal, and pituitary glands |
| Some organs have both endocrine and exocrine functions | Examples: liver, gonads, pancreas |
| Unicellular glands | found in an epithelium that is predominantly non-secretory |
| Endocrine and Exocrine Glands | Can be exocrine or endocrine |
| Endocrine and Exocrine Glands | Examples: mucus-secreting goblet cells in trachea or endocrine cells of stomach |
| Capsule | connective tissue covering of exocrine gland |
| Septa or trabeculae | extensions of capsule that divide interior of gland into compartments (lobes and lobules) |
| Stroma | connective tissue framework of the gland |
| Stroma | Supports and organizes glandular tissue |
| Parenchyma | cells that perform the tasks of synthesis and secretion |
| Parenchyma | Typically cuboidal or simple columnar epithelium |
| Classification of glands | Duct Shape & Gland Shape |
| Duct shape | Simple (unbranched) • Compound (branched) |
| Gland shape | Tubular, Acinar, Tubulocanir |
| Tubular | narrow secretory portion |
| Acinar | secretory cells form dilated sac (acinus or alveolus) |
| Tubuloacinar (tubuloalveolar) | both tubular and acinar portions |
| Simple colled tubular gland | Example: sweat gland |
| Compound acinar gland | Example: Mammary gland |
| Compound tubuloacinar | Example: pancreas |
| Serous glands | Produce thin, watery secretions |
| Serous Glands | Perspiration, milk, tears, digestive juices |
| Mucous Glands | Produce glycoprotein, mucin, which absorbs water to form mucus |
| Mucous Glands | Goblet cells: unicellular mucous glands |
| Mixed glands | Contain both serous and mucous cell types and produce a mixture of the two types of secretions |
| Eccrine (merocrine) secretion | uses vesicles that release their secretion by exocytosis |
| Eccrine (merocrine) | Examples: tear glands, pancreas, gastric glands, and others |
| Apocrine secretion | lipid droplet covered by membrane and cytoplasm buds from cell surface |
| Apocrine secretion | Mode of milk fat secretion by mammary gland cells |
| Holocrine secretion | cells accumulate a product until they disintegrate |
| Holocrine secretion | Secrete a mixture of cell fragments and synthesized substances |
| Holocrine secretion | Examples: oil glands of scalp and skin, and glands of eyelids |
| Membranes | may be only epithelial, only connective, or a mix of epithelial, connective, and muscular tissues |
| Membrane | Examples of membranes of only connective tissue: dura mater, synovial membranes, periosteum |
| Examples of membranes of only epithelium | anterior surfaces of cornea and lens of eye |
| Cutaneous membrane (the skin) | largest membrane in the body |
| Stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis) | resting on a layer of connective tissue (dermis) |
| Cutaneous membrane (the skin) | Relatively dry layer serves protective function |
| Mucous membrane (mucosa) lines | passages that open to the external environment (e.g., digestive tract) |
| Mucous membrane (mucosa) | Sublayers: epithelium, lamina propria (areolar tissue), muscularis mucosa (smooth muscle) |
| Mucous membrane (mucosa) | Absorptive, secretory, and protective functions |
| Mucous membrane (mucosa) | Often have mucus producing goblet cells |
| Serous membrane (serosa) | internal membrane |
| Simple squamous epithelium | resting on a layer of areolar tissue |
| Serous membrane | Produces serous fluid that arises from blood |
| Serous membrane | Covers organs and lines walls of body cavities |
| Serous membrane | Endothelium lines blood vessels and heart |
| Serous membrane | Mesothelium lines body cavities (pericardium, peritoneum, and pleura) |
| Tissue growth | increasing the number of cells or size of existing cells |
| Hyperplasia | growth through cell multiplication |
| Hypertrophy | enlargement of preexisting cells |
| Hypertrophy | Muscle growth through exercise |
| Hypertrophy | Accumulation of body fat |
| Neoplasia | development of a tumor (neoplasm) |
| Tumor | Benign or malignant |
| Tumor | Composed of abnormal, nonfunctional tissue |
| Tissues | can change types within certain limits |
| Differentiation | development of more specialized form and function by unspecialized tissue |
| Differentiation | Example: embryonic mesenchyme becoming cartilage and bone |
| Metaplasia | Changing from one type of mature tissue to another |
| Simple cuboidal tissue | of vagina before puberty changes to stratified squamous after puberty |
| Pseudostratified columnar epithelium | of bronchi of smokers to stratified squamous epithelium |
| Stem cells | undifferentiated cells that are not yet performing any specialized function |
| Stem cells | Have potential to differentiate into one or more types of mature functional cells |
| Developmental plasticity | ability of a stem cell to give rise to a diversity of mature cell types |
| Damaged tissues can be repaired in two ways | Regeneration & Fibrosis |
| Regeneration | replacement of dead or damaged cells by the same type of cell as before |
| Regeneration | Restores normal function • Examples: repair of minor skin or liver injuries |
| Fibrosis | replacement of damaged cells with scar tissue |
| Scar | holds organs together, but does not restore function |
| Fibrosis | Examples: repair of severe cuts and burns, scarring of lungs in tuberculosis |
| Healing of a cut in the skin | Severed vessels bleed into cut |
| Healing of a cut in the skin | Mast cells and damaged cells release histamine that dilates blood vessels and makes capillaries more permeable |
| Healing of a cut in the skin | Blood plasma seeps into the wound carrying antibodies and clotting proteins |
| Blood clot forms | Knits edges of cut together |
| Blood clot forms | Inhibits spread of pathogens |
| Blood Clot | Forms scab that temporarily seals wound and blocks infection |
| Macrophages | phagocytize and digest tissue debris |
| New capillaries | sprout from nearby vessels |
| Deeper portions | of clot become infiltrated by capillaries and fibroblasts |
| Blood clot | Transform into soft mass called granulation tissue |
| Macrophages | remove the blood clot |
| Fibroblasts | deposit new collagen |
| Skin Wound | Begins 3–4 days after injury and lasts up to 2 weeks |
| Epithelial cells | around wound multiply and migrate beneath scab (tissue regenerates) |
| Underlying connective tissue | undergoes fibrosis |
| Scar tissue | may or may not show through epithelium |
| Remodeling (maturation) | phase begins several weeks after injury and may last up to 2 years |
| Atrophy | shrinkage of a tissue through loss in cell size or number; occurs in normal aging or lack of use |
| Necrosis | pathological tissue death due to trauma, toxins, or infections |
| Infarction | sudden death of tissue when blood supply is cut off |
| Gangrene | tissue necrosis due to insufficient blood supply (usually involves infection) |
| Decubitus ulcer (bed sore or pressure sore) | form of dry gangrene from continual pressure on skin |
| Dry gangrene | common complication of diabetes |
| Wet gangrene | liquefaction of internal organs with infection |
| Gas gangrene | usually from infection of soil bacterium that results in hydrogen bubbles in tissues |
| Apoptosis | programmed cell death |
| Normal death of cells | that have completed their function and best serve the body by dying and getting out of the way |
| Phagocytized | by macrophages and other cells |
| Billions of cells die by | apoptosis |
| Every cell has a built-in | “suicide program” |
| Recent US Presidents | have disagreed on the morality of stem cell use |
| Biologists | see many possibilities for the use of embryonic stem cells in treating disease |
| Possibilities | include treatments for: parkinsonism, brain cell loss, diabetes, heart damage, and spinal cord injury |
| Most embryonic stem cells are donated by couples using in | vitro fertilization |
| Adult stem cells | seem limited, as they are hard to harvest and culture and have narrower developmental potential |
| Researchers | are trying to induce adult cells to revert to embryonic levels of developmental plasticity |
| The extracellular material of a tissue is called the extracellular | Matrix |
| Identify the three primary germ layers. | Ectoderm Endoderm Mesoderm |
| Which layer gives rise to mucous membranes of the digestive tract? | Endoderm |
| The primary germ layer between endoderm and ectoderm is called The middle layer of the embryonic germ layers the | mesoderm |
| In which type of tissue does the matrix normally occupy much more space than the cells do? | Connective |
| What is endoderm? | The inner layer of the primary germ layers |
| A thin slice of tissue prepared for microscopic observation is called a(n) ---- | histological section |
| A tissue found at surfaces, composed of one or more layers of closely adhering cells, is called Blank______ tissue. | epithelial |
| Which term is used to describe the free surface of an epithelium? | Apical |
| Which function of epithelial tissues is best suited to detecting changes in the environment? | Sensation |
| Which surface of an epithelial cell faces the basement membrane? | Basal |
| What are the four types of stratified epithelia? | Stratified columnar, stratified squamous, stratified cuboidal, and urothelium |
| Which are functions of epithelial tissue? | Absorption Protection Excretion |
| Which type of stratified epithelium is also known as transitional epithelium? | Urothelium |
| Which tissue class is comprised of widely-spaced cells and abundant extracellular material? Of the four classes of tissue, Blank______ tissues are the most abundant, widely distributed, and histologically variable of the primary tissues. | Connective |
| A connective tissue cell that produces collagen fibers and ground substance is a(n) | fibroblast |
| Which cell types are found in fibrous connective tissue? | Fibroblasts, macrophages, white blood cells, adipocytes |
| What are the three fiber types found in fibrous connective tissue? | Reticular Elastic Collagenous |
| of the four main types of ----- tissue fills the spaces between other tissues and binds tissues to one another. | connective |
| Which tissue type is found in tissue sections from most parts of the body? | Areolar tissue |
| A mesh of reticular fibers and fibroblasts make up ---- tissue | reticular |
| How are the different types of fibrous connective tissue distinguished from one another? | By whether the arrangement of fibers is dense or loose |
| Where would areolar connective tissue be found? | In the fascia between muscles Surrounding blood vessels |
| Elastic fibers are Blank______ than collagenous fibers. | thinner |
| Which connective tissue is composed of loosely arranged reticular fibers and lymphocytes? | Reticular connective tissue |
| Dense regular connective tissue is primarily composed of which fibers? | Collagenous |
| Where is reticular connective tissue found? | spleen |
| Which is a location of dense irregular connective tissue? | Fibrous sheath around bones |
| Which connective tissue contains loosely arranged cells, elastic fibers, and collagenous fibers? | Areolar connective tissue |
| Adipocytes are the predominant cell type in which connective tissue? | Adipose |
| Cartilage is best described as which of the following? | A relatively stiff connective tissue with a rubbery matrix |
| Which tissue would be the best at resisting pulling forces applied from several directions? | Dense irregular connective tissue |
| Which cell produces cartilage matrix? | Chondroblast |
| Cartilage in the epiglottis is | elastic cartilage |
| Within cartilage, cells called Blank______ secrete cartilage matrix | chrondoblasts |
| Cells that produce cartilage matrix are called ---- Once they become surrounded by matrix and trapped in lacunae, they become | chrondoblasts; chrondocytes |
| Mature bone cells that sit in lacunae are called | Osteocytes |
| Cartilage in the epiglottis is Blank______. | elastic cartilage |
| Canaliculi and lacunae are located in Blank______ tissue. | bone |
| The liquid portion of blood is called | plasma |
| Which cell produces cartilage matrix? | chrondoblast |
| A mature bone cell formed when an osteoblast becomes surrounded by its own matrix and entrapped in a lacuna is a(n) | osteocyte |
| The ground substance of blood is | plasma |
| Leukocytes are Blank______ than red blood cells and have Blank______, which red blood cells do not have. | larger; nuclei |
| Which of the following are formed elements of blood? | Erythrocytes Platelets Leukocytes |
| A formed element of the blood involved in clotting and other mechanisms for minimizing blood loss is a(n) | platelet |
| Blood plasma is best defined as which of the following? | liquid portion of blood |
| The type of cell indicated by the arrow in the image is a(n) | neuron |
| Of the four classes of tissues, ---- tissue consists of elongated fibers that are specialized to contract in response to stimulation | muscular |
| The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, smooth, and | cardiac |
| Cardiac Muscle | Branched, uninucleate, striated cells |
| Skeletal Muslce | Uninucleate, fusiform, nonstriated cells |
| A single skeletal muscle cell is also called a muscle | fiber |
| Which tissue can exert physical force on other tissues and organs? | muscle |
| Skeletal muscle fibers have Blank______ nuclei/nucleus. | multiple |
| Merocrine glands are also called Blank______ glands. | eccrine |
| Exocrine glands that release their secretions by disintegrating are classified as | holocrine glands |
| Three main types of body membranes? | Cutaneous Serous Mucous |
| Which membranes line passages that open to the exterior of the body? | mucous |
| Growth of a tissue due to an increase in cell number is called | hyperplasia |
| What are 2 processes by which tissues grow? | Cells increase in number Existing cells get larger |
| Growth of a tissue through cellular enlargement is called | hypertropy |
| Most embryonic and childhood growth occurs by Growth of a tissue due to an increase in cell number is called | hyperplasia |
| Children have red bone marrow in their long bones which changes to yellow bone marrow (fat) by adulthood. This is an example of which of the following? | metaplasia |
| The membranes lining the inside surface of the respiratory and digestive tracts are examples of ---- membranes | mucous or Mucous |
| Skeletal muscle and adipose tissue grow through | hypertropy |
| Two types of stem cells are | embryonic and adult |
| Stem cells have various degrees of developmental ---- , or diversity of mature cell types to which they can give rise. | plasticity |
| Cells that are stem cells that can develop into any cell type of a developing embryo but not into the accessory organs of pregnancy are called | Pluripotent cells |
| Growth of a tissue due to an increase in cell number is called | hyperplasia |
| Small numbers of ---- stem cells are found within mature organs and tissues throughout one's life. | adult |
| Adult stem cells are found in | fetuses and adults |
| Composed mainly of collagen fibers, ---- is the replacement of damaged tissue with scar tissue. | fibrosis |
| Fibrosis is the replacement of damaged tissue with | scar tissue |
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Russells3709